As filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on March 12, 2021.

Registration No. 333-253575

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

AMENDMENT NO. 1

TO

FORM F-1

REGISTRATION STATEMENT

UNDER

THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933

Tuya Inc.

(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its charter)

Not Applicable

(Translation of Registrant’s name into English)

10/F, Building A, Huace Center

Xihu District, Hangzhou City

Zhejiang, 310012

People’s Republic of China

+86 0571-86915981

(Address, Including Zip Code, and Telephone Number, Including Area Code, of Registrant’s Principal Executive Offices)

COGENCY GLOBAL INC.

122 East 42nd Street, 18th Floor New York, NY 10168

+1 800-221-0102

(Name, address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Copies to:

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public: As soon as practicable after the effective date of this registration statement.

If any of the securities being registered on this Form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933, check the following box.  ☐

If this Form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐             

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐             

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐             

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is an emerging growth company as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act of 1933.

Emerging growth company  ☒

If an emerging growth company that prepares its financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards† provided pursuant to Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act.  ☐

† The term “new or revised financial accounting standard” refers to any update issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board to its Accounting Standards Codification after April 5, 2012.

CALCULATION OF REGISTRATION FEE

The registrant hereby amends this registration statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this registration statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or until the registration statement shall become effective on such date as the United States Securities and Exchange Commission, acting pursuant to such Section 8(a), may determine.

The information in this prospectus is not complete and may be changed. We may not sell these securities until the registration statement filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission is effective. This prospectus is not an offer to sell these securities and it is not soliciting an offer to buy these securities in any state where the offer or sale is not permitted.

Subject to Completion

Preliminary Prospectus Dated March 12, 2021

43,590,000 American Depositary Shares

Tuya Inc.

Representing 43,590,000 Class A Ordinary Shares

This is an initial public offering of American depositary shares, or ADSs, representing Class A ordinary shares of Tuya Inc. We are offering a total of 43,590,000 ADSs, each representing one Class A ordinary share, par value US$0.00005 per share. The underwriters may also purchase up to 6,538,500 additional ADSs within 30 days to cover over-allotments, if any.

Prior to this offering, there has been no public market for the ADSs. We expect the initial public offering price will be between US$17.00 and US$20.00 per ADS. We intend to apply to list the ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol “TUYA.”

Following the completion of this offering, our issued and outstanding share capital will consist of Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares. Mr. Xueji (Jerry) Wang, our Chief Executive Officer and director, and Mr. Liaohan (Leo) Chen, our director, will collectively beneficially own all of our issued Class B ordinary shares and will collectively be able to exercise 83.7% of the total voting power of our issued and outstanding share capital immediately following the completion of this offering, assuming the underwriters do not exercise their option to purchase additional ADSs. Holders of Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares have the same rights except for voting and conversion rights. Each Class A ordinary share is entitled to one vote and each Class B ordinary share is entitled to 15 votes. Each Class B ordinary share is convertible into one Class A ordinary share at any time by the holder thereof, while Class A ordinary shares are not convertible into Class B ordinary shares under any circumstances. Upon any sale, transfer, assignment or disposition of any Class B ordinary share by a holder thereof to any non-affiliate to such holder, each of such Class B ordinary share will be automatically and immediately converted into one Class A ordinary share. See “Description of Share Capital.”

A number of investors, including certain existing shareholders and their affiliates and third-party investors, have indicated their interest in subscribing for an aggregate of at least US$500 million of the ADSs being offered in this offering, including (i) US$100 million from our existing shareholder Tencent, (ii) at least US$100 million from Gaoling Fund, L.P. and YHG Investment, L.P., affiliates of our existing shareholder, or collectively Hillhouse Capital, (iii) an aggregate of at least US$300 million from Canada Pension Plan Investment Board, one or more funds affiliated with Dragoneer Investment Group, LLC, GIC Private Limited, funds affiliated with Tiger Global Management, LLC, and/or their affiliates. The subscriptions for ADSs are at the initial public offering price and on the same terms as the other ADSs being offered in this offering. Because the indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, such investors may determine to purchase more, fewer or no ADSs in this offering, and we and the underwriters may determine to sell more, fewer or no ADSs to them. The underwriters will receive the same underwriting discounts and commissions on any ADSs purchased by such investors as they will on any other ADSs sold to the public in this offering.

Neither the United States Securities and Exchange Commission nor any state securities commission has approved or disapproved of these securities or determined if this prospectus is truthful or complete. Any representation to the contrary is a criminal offense.

We are an “emerging growth company” under the US federal securities laws and will be subject to reduced public company reporting requirements. Investing in the ADSs involves risks. See “Risk Factors” beginning on page 22 of this prospectus.

The underwriters expect to deliver the ADSs against payment in U.S. dollars in New York, New York on                     , 2021.

The date of this prospectus is                     , 2021

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Unless otherwise indicated or the context otherwise requires, all references in this prospectus to “Tuya Inc.” or the “Company,” “we,” “our,” “ours,” “us” or similar terms refer to Tuya Inc., together with its subsidiaries, and, in the context of describing our operations and consolidated financial information, its consolidated variable interest entity, or VIE.

We have not authorized anyone to provide any information other than that contained in this prospectus or in any free writing prospectus prepared by or on behalf of us or to which we may have referred you. We take no responsibility for, and can provide no assurance as to the reliability of, any other information that others may give you. We and the underwriters have not authorized any other person to provide you with different or additional information. Neither we nor the underwriters are making an offer to sell the ordinary shares in any jurisdiction where the offer or sale is not permitted. This offering is being made in the United States and elsewhere solely on the basis of the information contained in this prospectus. You should assume that the information appearing in this prospectus is accurate only as of the date on the front cover of this prospectus, regardless of the time of delivery of this prospectus or any sale of the ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares. Our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may have changed since the date on the front cover of this prospectus.

Until             , 2021 (the 25th day after the date of this prospectus), all dealers that buy, sell or trade the ADSs, whether or not participating in this offering, may be required to deliver a prospectus. This is in addition to the obligation of dealers to deliver a prospectus when acting as underwriters and with respect to their unsold allotments or subscriptions.

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RISK FACTORS

Investing in the ADSs involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the following risks and uncertainties and all other information contained in this prospectus before investing in the ADSs. Our business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects could also be harmed by risks and uncertainties not currently known to us or that we currently do not believe are material. If any of the risks actually occur, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be adversely affected. In that event, the market price of the ADSs could decline, and you could lose part or all of your investment.

Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

We operate in an emerging and evolving market, which may develop more slowly or differently than we expect. If our market does not grow as we expect, or if we cannot expand our products and services to meet the demands of this market, our revenue may decline, or fail to grow, and we may continue to incur operating losses.

The IoT PaaS and IoT SaaS markets are at an early stage of development. There is considerable uncertainty over the size and rate at which these markets will grow, as well as whether our products and services will be widely adopted. Moreover, the IoT cloud industry, including the IoT PaaS market and the IoT SaaS market, is subject to rapid technological change, evolving industry standards, changing regulations, as well as changing customer needs, requirements and preferences. The success of our business will depend, in part, on our ability to adapt and respond effectively to these changes on a timely basis. If we are unable to develop and launch new products and services or provide enhancements and new features to keep pace with rapid technological and industry changes, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be adversely affected. If new technologies emerge that are able to deliver competitive products and services at lower prices or more efficiently or securely, such technologies could adversely impact our ability to compete effectively.

Our products, services and platform must also integrate with a variety of network, hardware, software and technologies, and we need to continuously modify and enhance our products, services and platform to adapt to changes and innovation. For example, if customers adopt new software, we may be required to develop new versions of our products and services to be compatible with such new software. This development effort may require significant resources, which would adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition. Any failure of our products and services to operate effectively with evolving or new software and technologies could reduce the demand for our products and services. If we are unable to respond to these changes in a cost-effective manner, our products and services may become less marketable and less competitive or obsolete, and our business, results of operations and financial condition could be adversely affected.

We have a limited operating history, making it difficult to forecast our future results of operations.

We commenced our operations in 2014. Our relatively limited operating history makes it difficult to evaluate our current business and prospects, and to plan for our anticipated future growth. As a result of our limited operating history, our ability to accurately forecast our future results of operations is limited and subject to a number of uncertainties, including our ability to plan for and model future growth. Our historical revenue growth should not be considered indicative of our future performance.

Further, in future periods, our revenue growth could slow down or our revenue could decline for a number of reasons, including slowing demand for our offerings, increased competition, changes to technology, a decrease in the growth of our overall market, or our failure, for any reason, to continue to take advantage of growth opportunities. We have also encountered, and will continue to encounter, risks and uncertainties frequently experienced by growing companies in rapidly changing industries, such as the risks and uncertainties described below. If our assumptions regarding these risks and uncertainties and our future revenue growth are incorrect, or if we do not address these risks successfully, our operating and financial results could differ materially from our expectations, and our business could suffer.

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Our recent growth may not be indicative of our future growth, and we may not be able to sustain our revenue growth rate in the future. Our growth also makes it difficult to evaluate our future prospects and may increase the risk that we will not be successful.

We have experienced rapid growth since the inception of our operations. Our revenue increased by 70.0% from US$105.8 million for 2019 to US$179.9 million for 2020. However, you should not rely on the revenue growth of any prior quarterly or annual period as an indication of our future performance. We cannot assure you that we will be able manage our growth at the same rate as we did in the past, or avoid any decline in the future. To maintain our growth, we need to attract more customers, hire more qualified research and development, or R&D, staff and other staff, scale up our business and strengthen our technology infrastructure, among others. Moreover, our current and planned staffing, systems, policies, procedures and controls may not be adequate to support our future operations. To effectively manage the expected growth of our operations and personnel, we will also be required to refine our operational, financial and management controls and reporting systems and procedures. If we fail to efficiently manage the expansion of our business, our costs and expenses may increase faster than we planned and we may not successfully attract a sufficient number of customers and end users in a cost-effective manner, respond timely to competitive challenges, or otherwise execute our business strategies. Our growth requires significant financial resources and will continue to place significant demands on our management. There is no guarantee that we will be able to effectively manage any future growth in an efficient, cost-effective and timely manner, or at all. Our growth in a relatively short period of time is not necessarily indicative of results that we may achieve in the future. If we fail to effectively manage the growth of our business and operations, our reputation, results of operations and overall business and prospects could be negatively impacted.

The markets in which we operate are competitive, and if we do not compete effectively, our business, operating results and financial condition could be harmed.

The IoT PaaS and IoT SaaS markets are competitive and rapidly evolving. The principal competitive factors in these markets include ability to support multiple use cases on a single platform, ease of deployment, implementation and use, platform performance, scalability and reliability, global reach, brand awareness and reputation, the strength of sales and marketing efforts, as well as ability to ensure data security and privacy.

Some of our existing and potential competitors might have substantial competitive advantages, including larger scale, longer operating history, greater brand recognition, more established relationships with customers, suppliers, manufacturers and other business partners, and greater financial, research and development, marketing and other resources. As a result, our competitors may be able to respond more quickly and effectively than we can to new or changing opportunities, technologies, standards or customer requirements. In addition, some competitors may offer products or services that address one or a limited number of functions at lower prices, with greater depth than our products and services or in different geographies. Our existing and potential competitors may develop and market new products and services with comparable functionality to ours, and this could force us to offer our products and services at lower prices in order to remain competitive.

Some of our competitors are able to offer products and services at lower prices than ours, which may be attractive to certain customers even if those products and services offer different or fewer functionalities. If we are unable to maintain our current pricing due to the competitive pressures, our margins will be reduced and our business, results of operations and financial condition would be adversely affected. In addition, pricing pressures and increased competition could result in reduced revenue, reduced margins, increased losses or the failure of our products and services to achieve or maintain widespread market acceptance, any of which could harm our business, results of operations and financial condition.

With the introduction of new products and services and new market entrants, we expect competition to intensify in the future. In addition, some of our customers may choose to use our products and services and our competitors’ products and services at the same time, or choose to switch to other IoT platforms. As we expand

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the scope of our platform, products and services, we may face additional competition. If one or more of our competitors were to merge or partner with another of our competitors, the change in the competitive landscape could also adversely affect our ability to compete effectively.

The success of our business is dependent upon our ability to maintain and expand our customer base and our ability to convince our customers to increase the use of our products and services. If we are unable to expand our customer base and/or the use of our products and services by our customers declines, our business may be harmed.

Our ability to expand and generate revenue depends, in part, on our ability to maintain and expand our relationships with customers and convince them to increase their use of our products and services. If our customers do not increase their use of our products and services, our revenue may not grow and our results of operations may be harmed. It is difficult to predict the end users’ usage levels of smart devices accurately and the loss of customers or reductions in the end users’ usage levels may have a negative impact on our business, results of operations, and financial condition. Our customers may cease, or reduce their usage of our products and services due to a variety of reasons or factors, such as progress in technology that makes our products and services obsolete, unfounded allegations and rumors relating to the health effect of technologies such as 5G, or national security concerns caused by our products and services, that are outside our or our customers’ control. If a significant our number of customers cease using, or reduce their usage of, our products and services, or if the brands who place orders through our OEM customers cease to place orders from them, we may be required to spend significantly more on sales and marketing than we currently plan to spend in order to maintain or increase revenue. These additional expenditures could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Our use of third-party suppliers involves certain risks that may result in, among others, increased costs, quality or compliance issues, or failure to timely manufacture the modules and finished smart devices, any of which could materially harm our business.

We use third-party suppliers to manufacture the modules where the edge capabilities of IoT PaaS are embedded, and in some circumstances, finished smart devices. We do not manufacture these modules or smart devices and do not own or operate any manufacturing facility. Instead, we are dependent on third-party suppliers to manufacture the modules and smart devices using their equipment and techniques. Our use of such third-party module suppliers involves a number of risks, including:

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If any of our suppliers is not able to perform its manufacturing obligations in the manner, timing and quality as agreed, we may not be able to, on a timely basis, find a suitable alternative on commercially acceptable terms. Disruptions of our relationships with such suppliers could negatively impact our business operations for an extended period of time. Any inability to acquire sufficient quantities of the modules and finished smart devices in a timely manner from these third-party suppliers could have a material negative impact on our business.

If we are not able to introduce new features or products successfully and to make enhancements to our existing products and services, our business and results of operations could be adversely affected.

To attract new customers and end users and keep our existing ones engaged, we must introduce new products and services and upgrade our existing offerings to meet their evolving preferences. It is difficult to predict the preferences of a particular customer or a specific group of customers. Changes and upgrades to our existing products may not be well received by our customers and end users, and newly introduced products or services may not achieve success as expected. For example, we may introduce new industry SaaS products for new industry verticals, with which we have little or no prior experience. Such efforts may require us to contribute a substantial amount of additional human capital and financial resources. We cannot assure you that any of such new products will achieve market acceptance or generate sufficient revenues to adequately compensate the costs and expenses incurred in relation to our development and promotion efforts. Enhancements and new products and services that we develop may not be introduced in a timely or cost-effective manner, may contain errors or defects, may have interoperability difficulties with our platform or other products and services or may not achieve the broad market acceptance necessary to generate significant revenue. If we fail to improve our existing products and introduce new ones in a timely or cost-effective manner, our ability to attract and retain customers and end users may be impaired, and our financial performance and prospects may be adversely affected.

We rely upon third-party providers of cloud-based infrastructure to host our platform. Any disruption in the operations of these third-party providers, limitations on capacity or interference with our use could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We currently serve our customers and end users from co-located data centers in China, the United States, Europe and India. We also use various third-party cloud-hosting providers such as AWS, Microsoft Azure and Tencent Cloud to provide cloud infrastructure for our platform. Our IoT PaaS and Industry SaaS products and value-added services all rely on the operations of this infrastructure. We do not control, or in some cases have limited control over, the operation of the data center facilities we use. Customers expect to access our platform at any time, without interruption or degradation of performance, and we provide a few customers with service-level commitments with respect to uptime. Any limitation on the capacity of our data centers or cloud infrastructure could impede our ability to onboard new customers or expand the usage of our existing customers, host our products or serve our customers, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, any incident affecting our data centers or cloud infrastructure that may be caused by cyber-attacks, natural disasters, fire, flood, severe storm, earthquake, power loss, outbreaks of contagious diseases, telecommunications failures, terrorist or other attacks, or other events beyond our control could negatively affect the cloud-based portion of our platform. A prolonged service disruption affecting our data centers or cloud-based services for any of the foregoing reasons would negatively impact our ability to serve our customers and could damage our reputation with current and potential customers, expose us to liability, cause us to lose customers or otherwise harm our business. We may also incur significant costs for using alternative providers or taking other actions in preparation for, or in response to, events that damage the third-party hosting services we use.

In the event that our service agreements relating to our data centers or cloud infrastructure are terminated, or there is a lapse of service, elimination of services or features that we utilize, interruption of internet service provider connectivity or damage to such facilities, we could experience interruptions in access to our platform, as well as significant delays and additional expense in arranging or creating new facilities and services or re-architecting our platform for deployment on a different data center provider or cloud infrastructure service provider, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

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We benefit from integration of our products and services with those of our business partners. If these business partners choose not to partner with us in the future, our business and results of operations may be harmed.

We benefit from integration of our products and services with those of our business partners, such as the providers of cloud services used to support our platform. If entities who serve as our business partners change their cooperation model with us, our business, results of operations and financial condition may be adversely affected. We may also face competition from our business partners in a number of areas, including innovations in our businesses. Such competition may adversely affect our competitive position, business prospects and our relationship with our business partners. It may be necessary in the future to renegotiate agreements relating to various aspects of these collaborations or business partnerships. In addition, if our business partners choose not to partner with us, or choose to form collaborations with our competitors’ platforms, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be harmed.

Compliance with the rapidly evolving landscape of global data privacy and security laws may be challenging, and any failure or perceived failure to comply with such laws, or other concerns about our practices or policies with respect to the processing of personal data, could damage our reputation and deter current and potential customers and end users from using our platform and products and services or subject us to significant compliance costs or penalties, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Failure to comply with the increasing number of data protection laws in the jurisdictions in which we operate, as well as concerns about our practices with regard to the collection, use, storage, retention, transfer, disclosure, and other processing of personal data, the security of personal data, or other privacy-related matters, such as cybersecurity breaches, misuse of personal data and data sharing without necessary safeguards, including concerns from our customers, employees and third parties with whom we conduct business, even if unfounded, could damage our reputation and operating results. As we seek to expand our business, we are, and may increasingly become, subject to various laws, regulations and standards, as well as contractual obligations, relating to data privacy and security in the jurisdictions in which we operate. The regulatory and legal frameworks regarding data privacy and security issues in many jurisdictions are constantly evolving and developing and can be subject to significant changes from time to time, including in ways that may result in conflicting requirements among various jurisdictions. Interpretation and implementation standards and enforcement practices are similarly in a state of flux and are likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. As a result, we may not be able to comprehensively assess the scope and extent of our compliance responsibility at a global level, and may fail to fully comply with the applicable data privacy and security laws, regulations and standards. Moreover, these laws, regulations and standards may be interpreted and applied differently over time and from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and it is possible that they will be interpreted and applied in ways that may have a material and adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

In certain jurisdictions in which we operate, stringent, extra-territorial data protection laws exist which increase our compliance burden and the risk of scrutiny. For example, the General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679 (“GDPR”), which applies to the collection, use, storage, retention, transfer, disclosure, and other processing of personal data obtained from individuals located in the European Union (“EU”) or by businesses operating within the EU, became effective on May 25, 2018 and has resulted, and will continue to result, in significantly greater compliance burdens and costs for companies with customers, end users, or operations in the EU. The GDPR places stringent obligations and operational requirements on us as both a processor and controller of personal data and could make it more difficult or more costly for us to use and share personal data. Under the GDPR, data protection supervisory authorities are given various enforcement powers, including levying fines of up to 20 million Euros or up to 4% of an organization’s annual worldwide turnover, whichever is greater, for the preceding financial year, for non-compliance. Data subjects also have the right to be compensated for damages suffered as a result of a controller or processor’s non-compliance with the GDPR. While the GDPR provides a more harmonized approach to data protection regulation across the EU member states, it also gives EU member

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states certain areas of discretion and therefore laws and regulations in relation to certain data processing activities may differ on a member state by member state basis, which could further limit our ability to use and share personal data and could require localized changes to our operating model. In addition to the GDPR, the EU also has released a proposed Regulation on Privacy and Electronic Communications, or the ePrivacy Regulation, to replace the EU’s current Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive, or the ePrivacy Directive, to, among other things, better align EU member states and the rules governing online tracking technologies and electronic communications, such as unsolicited marketing and cookies, with the requirements of the GDPR. While the ePrivacy Regulation was originally intended to be adopted on May 25, 2018 (alongside the GDPR), it is currently going through the European legislative process, and commentators now expect it to be adopted in 2021. The current draft of the ePrivacy Regulation significantly increases fining powers to the same levels as GDPR and may require us to change our operational model and incur additional compliance expenses. Recent discussions were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, further delaying enactment of this regulation, the details of which remain in flux. Additional time and effort may need to be spent addressing the new requirements in the potential ePrivacy Regulation as compared to the GDPR.

Under the GDPR, restrictions are placed on transfers of personal data outside of the European Economic Area to countries which have not been deemed “adequate” by the European Commission (including the United States and the PRC). As a global business, with customers and end users worldwide, we are susceptible to any changes in legal requirements affecting international data flows. The Court of Justice of the European Union (“CJEU”) issued a decision on July 16, 2020, invaliding the EU-US Privacy Shield Framework, which provided one mechanism for lawful cross-border transfers of personal data between the EU and the U.S. While the decision did not invalidate the use of standard contractual clauses, another mechanism for making lawful cross-border transfers, the decision has called the validity of standard contractual clauses into question under certain circumstances, and has made the legality of transferring personal data from the EU to the U.S. or various other jurisdictions outside of the EU more uncertain. Specifically, the CJEU stated that companies must now assess the validity of standard contractual clauses on a case by case basis, taking into consideration whether the standard contractual clauses provide sufficient protection in light of any access by the public authorities of the third country to where the personal data is transferred, and the relevant aspects of the legal system of such third country. While the European Data Protection Board recently issued certain draft guidance relating to ongoing use of the standard contractual clauses, including certain proposed amendments to the standard contractual clauses, the CJEU’s decision has increased uncertainty surrounding data transfers from the EU to third countries that may not offer the same level of protection for data subjects’ rights as the EU. Due to this evolving regulatory guidance, we may need to invest in additional technical, legal and organization safeguards in the future to avoid disruptions to data flows within our business and to and from our customers and service providers. Furthermore, this uncertainty, and its eventual resolution, may increase our costs of compliance, impede our ability to transfer data and conduct our business, and harm our business or results of operations.

Outside of the EU, many jurisdictions have adopted or are adopting new data privacy and security laws, which may result in additional expenses to us and increase the risk of non-compliance. For example, in the United States, various federal and state regulators, including governmental agencies like the Federal Trade Commission, have adopted, or are considering adopting, laws and regulations concerning personal data and data security. This patchwork of legislation and regulation may give rise to conflicts or differing views of personal privacy rights. For example, certain state laws may be more stringent or broader in scope, or offer greater individual rights, with respect to personal data than federal, international or other state laws, and such laws may differ from each other, all of which may complicate compliance efforts. One such comprehensive privacy law in the United States is the California Consumer Privacy Act (“CCPA”), which came into effect on January 1, 2020. Among other things, the CCPA requires companies that process information of California residents to make new detailed disclosures to consumers about such companies’ data collection, use and sharing practices, gives California residents expanded rights to access and delete their personal information, and to opt out of certain personal information sharing with (and sales of personal information to) third parties. The CCPA provides for civil penalties for violations, as well as a private right of action for certain data breaches that result in the loss of personal data. This private right of action is expected to increase the likelihood of, and risks associated with, data

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breach litigation. The CCPA was amended in September 2018, November 2019 and September 2020, and it is possible that further amendments will be enacted, but even in its current form it remains unclear how various provisions of the CCPA will be interpreted and enforced. Additionally, a new privacy law, the California Privacy Rights Act (“CPRA”), was approved by California voters in the election of November 3, 2020. The CPRA, which will take effect in most material respects on January 1, 2023, modifies the California Consumer Privacy Act significantly, including by expanding consumers’ rights with respect to certain sensitive personal information and creating a new state agency to oversee implementation and enforcement efforts, potentially resulting in further uncertainty and requiring us to incur additional costs and expenses in an effort to comply. Other state laws are changing rapidly and there have been ongoing discussions and proposals in the U.S. Congress with respect to new federal data privacy and security laws to which we would become subject if enacted. All of these evolving compliance and operational requirements impose significant costs that are likely to increase over time, may require us to modify our data processing practices and policies, divert resources from other initiatives and projects, and could restrict the way products and services involving data are offered, all of which may have a material and adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

In recent years, the PRC government has tightened the regulation of the storage, sharing, use, disclosure and protection of personal data and information. In June 2017, the PRC Cyber Security Law promulgated by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, or the SCNPC, took effect. In addition, the PRC government has issued for public consultation the drafts of a number of supplemental measures and guidelines, including, for example, the draft Measures on Security Assessment of Cross-Border Transfer of Personal Information and Important Data released in April 2017, the draft Measures on Security Assessment of Cross-Border Transfer of Personal Information released in June 2019, the draft Data Security Law released in July 2020, and the draft Personal Information Protection Law released in October 2020. These proposed laws and regulations require, among others, that personal information should be stored within the PRC unless, prior to the intended data transfer, an official security assessment carried out by the PRC government authorities has been completed and a number of other specified criteria has been met. Since the PRC Cybersecurity Law is relatively new and many of the supplemental measures and guidelines are in draft form and it is still uncertain when it would be signed into law and whether the final version would have any substantial changes from its draft form, interpretation standards and enforcement practices are likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. In addition, while we do not believe our current business involves any transmission, use and exchange of information that comes under the definition of “cross-border transfer of personal data” under the PRC Cybersecurity Law, we cannot assure you that the PRC regulatory authorities will not take a view contrary to ours, thus requiring us to comply with the data localization, security assessment and other requirements under these proposed laws and regulations. In addition, as our business continues to grow, there may arise circumstances where we engage in such cross-border transfer of personal data, including in order to satisfy the legal and regulatory requirements, in which case we may need to comply with the foregoing requirements as well as any other limitations under PRC laws then applicable. Complying with these laws and requirements could cause us to incur substantial expenses or require us to alter or change our practices in a manner that could harm our business. Additionally, to the extent we are found to be not in compliance with these laws and requirements, we may be subject to fines, regulatory orders to suspend our operations or other regulatory and disciplinary sanctions, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

In addition to government regulation, privacy advocates and industry groups have and may in the future propose self-regulatory standards from time to time. These and other industry standards may legally or contractually apply to us, or we may elect to comply with such standards. We expect that there will continue to be new proposed laws and regulations concerning data privacy and security, and we cannot yet determine the impact such future laws, regulations and standards may have on our business. New laws, amendments to or re-interpretations of existing laws, regulations, standards and other obligations may require us to incur additional costs and restrict our business operations. For example, there is an increasing trend of jurisdictions requiring data localization, which may prohibit companies from storing data relating to resident individuals in data centers outside the relevant jurisdiction or, at a minimum, require a complete set of the data to be stored in data centers within the relevant jurisdiction. Because the interpretation and application of laws, regulations, standards and

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other obligations relating to data privacy and security are still uncertain, it is possible that these laws, regulations, standards and other obligations may be interpreted and applied in a manner that is inconsistent with our data processing practices and policies or the features of our products and services. If so, in addition to the possibility of fines, lawsuits, regulatory investigations, public censure, other claims and penalties, and significant costs for remediation and damage to our reputation, we could be materially and adversely affected if legislation or regulations are expanded to require changes in our data processing practices and policies or if governing jurisdictions interpret or implement their legislation or regulations in ways that negatively impact our business, financial condition and results of operations. Furthermore, the developing requirements relating to clear and prominent privacy notices (including in the context of obtaining informed and specific consents to the collection and processing of personal data, where applicable) may potentially deter end users from consenting to certain uses of their personal data. In general, negative publicity of us or our industry regarding actual or perceived violations of our end users’ privacy-related rights, including fines and enforcement actions against us or other similarly placed businesses, also may impair users’ trust in our privacy practices and make them reluctant to give their consent to share their data with us. Any inability to adequately address data privacy or security-related concerns, even if unfounded, or to comply with applicable laws, regulations, standards and other obligations relating to data privacy and security, could result in additional cost and liability to us, harm our reputation and brand, damage our relationships with consumers and have a material and adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

With regard to our commercial arrangements, we and our counterparties, including business partners and external service providers, might be subject to contractual obligations regarding the processing of personal data. While we believe our and our counterparties’ conduct under these agreements is in material compliance with all applicable laws, regulations, standards, certifications and orders relating to data privacy or security, we or our counterparties may fail, or be alleged to have failed, to be in full compliance. In the event that our acts or omissions result in alleged or actual failure to comply with applicable laws, regulations, standards, certifications and orders relating to data privacy or security, we may incur liability. While we endeavor to include indemnification provisions or other protections in such agreements to mitigate liability and losses stemming from our counterparties’ acts or omissions, we may not always be able to negotiate for such protections and, even where we can, there is no guarantee that our counterparties will honor such provisions or that such protections will cover the full scope of our liabilities and losses.

While we strive to comply with our internal data privacy guidelines as well as all applicable data privacy and security laws and regulations, and contractual obligations in respect of personal data, there is no assurance that we are able to comply with these laws, regulations and contractual obligations in all respects. Any failure or perceived failure by us, external service providers or business partners to comply may result in proceedings or actions against us, including fines and penalties or enforcement orders (including orders to cease processing activities) being levied on us by government agencies or proceedings or actions against us by our business partners, customers or end-users, including class action privacy litigation in certain jurisdictions, and could damage our reputation and discourage current and future users from using our products and services, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, compliance with applicable laws on data privacy requires substantial expenditure and resources, including to continually evaluate our policies and processes and adapt to new requirements that are or become applicable to us on a jurisdiction-by-jurisdiction basis, which would impose significant burdens and costs on our operations or may require us to alter our business practices. Concerns about the security of personal data also could lead to a decline in general Internet usage, which could result in a decrease in demand for our products and services and have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. Furthermore, if the local government authorities in our target markets require real-name registration for users of our platform, the growth of our customer and end-user bases may slow down and our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.

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The expansion of our international operations exposes us to significant regulatory, economic and political risks, the failure to handle which may adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Expansion of our operations and customer base worldwide is essential to our growth strategy. While we conduct our business primarily in China, we operate internationally with local offices in the U.S., India, Germany, and Japan, among other locations.

We expect that our international activities will continue to grow over the foreseeable future as we continue to pursue opportunities in existing and new markets, which will require significant management attention and financial resources worldwide. In connection with such expansion, we may face difficulties including costs associated with varying seasonality patterns, potential adverse movement of currency exchange rates, longer payment cycle difficulties in collecting accounts receivable in some countries, tariffs and trade barriers, a variety of regulatory or contractual limitations on our ability to operate, adverse tax events, reduced protection of intellectual property rights in some countries, political risks and a geographically and culturally diverse workforce and customer base. Failure to overcome any of these difficulties could harm our business.

In addition, we will face risks in doing business internationally that could adversely affect our business, including:

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Our failure to manage any of these risks successfully could harm our international operations, and adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition. In some cases, compliance with the laws and regulations of one country could violate the laws and regulations of another country. As our global operations evolve, we cannot assure you that we are able to fully comply with the legal requirements of each jurisdiction and successfully adapt our business models to local market conditions. Due to the complexity involved in our international business expansion, we cannot assure you that we are or will be in compliance with all local laws.

The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted our and our business partners’ operations and it, or any future health epidemic or other adverse public health developments, may continue to do so.

On January 30, 2020, the International Health Regulations Emergency Committee of the World Health Organization declared the novel coronavirus disease 2019, or COVID-19, outbreak a public health emergency of international concern, and on March 11, 2020 the World Health Organization declared the global COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic. The COVID-19 virus continues to spread rapidly worldwide, including where our customers, suppliers and end users are located and where we have business operations. During the COVID-19 pandemic, government authorities around the world have ordered businesses to close and people to remain at home while imposing significant restrictions on traveling and social gatherings. Our customers and suppliers are also affected by COVID-19 related restrictions and closures. These measures have impacted, and may further impact, our workforce and operations, the operations of our customers and suppliers and other business partners. There continues to be significant uncertainties associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, including with respect to the ultimate spread of the virus, the severity of the disease, the duration of the outbreak, the possibility of successive waves of outbreaks, further actions that may be taken by governmental authorities around the world to contain the virus or to treat its impact, and the scope and length of the resulting economic downturn. The economic downturn due to COVID-19 may adversely affect our customers’ ability to pay and customer demand for and end user usage of our products and services, which would adversely affect our operating results and financial condition.

Failure to contain the further spread of COVID-19 will prolong and exacerbate the general economic downturn. In addition, while the potential impact and duration of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global economy and our business in particular may be difficult to assess or predict, the pandemic has resulted in, and may continue to result in, significant disruption of global financial markets, which may reduce our ability to access capital or our customers’ ability to pay us for past or future purchases, which could negatively affect our liquidity. The COVID-19 pandemic could also reduce the demand for our products and services. In the first quarter of 2020, we experienced a decline in demand for IoT PaaS due to reduced production capacity of OEM customers as COVID-19 containment measures began to be widely introduced across China where substantially all of them were located. Additionally, throughout the first three quarters of 2020, the travel restrictions and social distancing guidelines imposed by governments globally have reduced the amount of international travels and in-person meetings, which in turn limited our ability to engage in in-person marketing with brands, particularly those brands based in the U.S. and Europe. Although our number of deployments largely returned to pre-COVID levels in the second quarter of 2020 as our OEM customers began to resume operations and clear the backlogs since restrictions in China continued to be eased and that we recorded a significant growth of our number of deployments in the third and fourth quarters of 2020 both consecutively and as compared to the same period in 2019, there is no guarantee that the prolonged pandemic will not affect the demands for our products and services in the future. In addition, a recession or financial market correction resulting from the spread of COVID-19 could decrease overall technology spending, adversely affecting demand for our products and services, our business and the value of the ADSs.

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The global pandemic of COVID-19 continues to rapidly evolve, and we will continue to monitor the COVID-19 situation closely. The ultimate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic or a similar health epidemic is highly uncertain and subject to change. The extent of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on our operational and financial performance, including our ability to execute our business strategies and initiatives, will depend on future developments, including, but not limited to, the duration and spread of the pandemic, its severity, the actions to contain the disease or treat its impact, related restrictions on travel, and the duration, timing and severity of the impact on customer spending, including any recession resulting from the pandemic, all of which are uncertain and cannot be predicted. To the extent the COVID-19 pandemic adversely affects our business and financial results, it may also heighten other risks described in this “Risk Factors” section. For additional information of the impact of COVID-19 on our business, see “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Impact of COVID-19.”

If we fail to manage the operation of our platform and infrastructure, our customers and end users may experience service outages and delays in the deployment of our products and services.

We have experienced significant growth in the number of customers and end users and the amounts of data that our cloud platform supports. We seek to maintain sufficient excess capacity on our cloud platform to meet the needs of all of our customers and end users. We also seek to maintain excess capacity to facilitate the rapid provision of new customer deployments and the expansion of existing customer deployments. In addition, we need to properly manage our technological operations infrastructure and cloud platform, and to respond to security threats, cyber-attacks and performance and reliability problems that may arise from time to time, in order to support version control, changes in hardware and software parameters and the evolution of our products and services. However, the provision of new hosting infrastructure requires adequate lead-time. We have experienced, and may in the future experience, system disruptions, outages and other performance problems. These types of problems may be caused by a variety of factors, including infrastructure changes, human or software errors, viruses, security attacks, fraud, spikes in customer and end user usage and denial of service issues. In some instances, we may not be able to identify the cause or causes of these performance problems within an acceptable period of time. Further, if our contractual and other business relationships with our cloud infrastructure providers are terminated, suspended, or suffer a material change to which we are unable to adapt, such as the elimination of services or features on which we depend, we could be unable to provide our platform and could experience significant delays and incur additional expense in transitioning customers to a different cloud infrastructure provider. Any difficulties these providers face, including the potential of certain network traffic receiving priority over other traffic (i.e., lack of net neutrality), may adversely affect our business, and we exercise little control over these providers, which increases our vulnerability to problems with the services they provide. Any disruptions, outages, defects, and other performance and quality problems with our platform or with our products and services and internet infrastructure on which they rely, or any material change in our contractual and other business relationships with our cloud infrastructure providers, could result in reduced use of our platform, increased expenses, including service credit obligations, and harm to our brand and reputation, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Defects, errors or any other problems associated with our products and services could diminish demand for our products or services, harm our business and results of operations and subject us to liability.

Our customers use our products and services for important aspects of their businesses, and any errors, defects or disruptions to our products and services and any other performance problems with our products and services could damage our customers’ businesses and, in turn, hurt our brand and reputation. We provide regular updates to our products and services, which have in the past contained, and may in the future contain, undetected errors, failures, vulnerabilities and bugs when first introduced or released. Real or perceived errors, failures, bugs or security vulnerabilities in our products could result in negative publicity, loss of or delay in market acceptance of our platform, loss of competitive position, lower customer retention or claims by customers for losses sustained by them. In such an event, we may be required, or may choose, for customer relations or other reasons, to expend additional resources in order to help correct the problem. As a result, our reputation and our brand

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could be harmed, and our business, operating results and financial condition may be adversely affected. Moreover, certain edge capabilities that we offer are embedded in modules manufactured by certain third-party suppliers; we also use third-party suppliers to manufacture the finished smart devices for our smart device distribution customers. Such modules and finished smart devices may contain defects, errors or other product issues, which may negatively impact the performance of our platform, our products and services, and Tuya-powered smart devices, damage our reputation, harm our ability to attract new and existing customers, and incur significant support, repair or replacement costs even if we can be reimbursed from the third-party suppliers.

We generate a significant portion of our revenues from a limited number of major customers and any loss of business from these customers could have a negative impact on our revenues and harm our business.

We derive a significant portion of our revenues from a limited number of major customers. Our five largest customers in 2019 and 2020 accounted for approximately 20% of our revenues. Our ability to maintain close relationships with major customers is essential to the success of our business. As we have cultivated a large and diversified customer base across different industry verticals, none of our customers is material to our total revenue. However, the purchase orders placed by specific customers may vary from period to period, and we typically do not have long-term purchase commitments from customers not enrolled in our membership program. As a result, most of our customers could reduce or cease their use of our products and services at any time without any penalty or termination charges. A major customer in one year may not provide the same level of revenues for us in any subsequent year. In addition, reliance on any individual customer for a significant portion of our revenues may give that customer a degree of pricing leverage when negotiating contracts and terms of service with us.

Many factors not within our control could cause the loss of, or reduction in, business or revenues from any customer, and these factors are not predictable. These factors include, among others, pricing pressure from competitors, a change in a customer’s business strategy, or failure of a module supplier to develop competitive products. Our customers may choose to pursue alternative technologies and develop alternative products in addition to, or in lieu of, our products, either on their own or in collaboration with others, including our competitors. The loss of any major customer, or a significant decrease in the volume of customer demand or the price at which we sell our products to customers, could materially adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

We have a history of net loss and may not be able to achieve or sustain profitability in the future.

We have experienced net loss in each period since inception. We generated net loss of US$70.5 million and US$66.9 million in 2019 and 2020, respectively. As of December 31, 2020, we had an accumulated deficit of US$192.5 million. We intend to continue to invest significantly in enhancing our platform and expanding our sales and marketing teams. We will also incur increased general and administrative expenses associated with our growth, including costs related to internal systems and operating as a public company. We may not be able to increase our revenue enough to offset the increase in operating expenses resulting from these investments. If we are unable to achieve and sustain profitability, or if we are unable to achieve the revenue growth that we expect from these investments, the value of our business and stock may decrease.

Additionally, we recorded net cash operating outflow of US$49.2 million for 2020. If we continue to experience net cash operating outflow in the future, our business, liquidity, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. Although we have sufficient working capital for at least the next twelve months, there is no assurance that we will always generate sufficient net income or operating cash flows to meet our working capital requirements and repay our liabilities as they become due, due to a variety of factors. For actions we intend to take to finance our future working capital requirements and capital expenditures, see “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Liquidity and Capital Resources.” There can be no assurance that we will be able to successfully take any of these actions in a

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timely manner, including prudently managing our working capital, or raising additional equity or debt financing on terms that are acceptable to us. Our failure to take these actions as and when necessary could materially adversely affect our liquidity, results of operations, financial condition and ability to operate.

We cannot guarantee that our future monetization strategies will be successfully implemented or generate sustainable revenues and profit.

We have developed a diversified revenue model and plan to explore additional opportunities to monetize our customer base and technology by, for example, promoting additional value-added services to end users to generate more subscription fees. If these efforts fail to achieve our anticipated results, we may not be able to increase or maintain our revenue growth. Specifically, in order to increase the number of our customers and end users and their levels of spending, we will need to address a number of challenges, including providing consistent quality products and services; continuing to innovate and stay ahead of our competitors; and improving the effectiveness and efficiency of our sales and marketing efforts. If we fail to address any of these challenges, we may not be successful in increasing the number of our customers and end users and their expenditures with us, which could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our results may fluctuate from period to period, and if we fail to meet securities analysts’ and investors’ expectations, the trading price of the ADSs and the value of your investment could decline substantially.

Our operating results have fluctuated from period to period and will continue to vary in the future as a result of a variety of factors, many of which are outside of our control and are unpredictable. For example, our revenue model is based in large part on end user adoption and usage of our customers’ applications, which can constrain our ability to forecast revenue. If operating results for any particular period fall below securities analysts’ and investors’ expectations, then the trading price of the ADSs could decline substantially. Some factors that may cause our operating results to fluctuate from period to period include:

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The occurrence of one or more of the foregoing and other factors may cause our operating results to vary significantly. As such, we believe that period-to-period comparisons of our operating results may not be meaningful and should not be relied upon as an indication of future performance. If we fail to meet or exceed the expectations of investors or securities analysts, then the trading price of the ADSs could fall substantially, and we could face costly lawsuits, including securities class action suits.

Failure to effectively develop and expand our marketing and sales capabilities could harm our ability to increase our customer base and achieve broader market acceptance of our products and services.

Historically, we have relied on the adoption of our products and services by developers through our self-service portal as well as more targeted sales efforts. Our ability to further increase our customer base and achieve broader market acceptance of our platform will significantly depend on our ability to expand our marketing and sales operations. We plan to continue expanding our sales force, both domestically and internationally. We also plan to dedicate significant resources to sales and marketing programs. All of these efforts will require us to invest significant financial and other resources and if they fail to attract additional customers and end users our business will be harmed.

We believe that there is significant competition for sales personnel, including sales representatives, sales managers, and sales engineers, with the skills and technical knowledge that we require. Our ability to achieve significant revenue growth will depend, in large part, on our success in recruiting, training, and retaining sufficient numbers of sales personnel to support our growth. New hires require significant training and may take significant time before they achieve full productivity. Our new hires may not become productive as quickly as we expect, if at all, and we may be unable to hire or retain sufficient numbers of qualified individuals in the markets where we do business or plan to do business. In addition, particularly if we continue to grow rapidly, new members of our sales force will have relatively little experience working with us, our products and platform, and our business model. If we are unable to hire and train sufficient numbers of effective sales personnel, our sales personnel do not reach significant levels of productivity in a timely manner, or our sales personnel are not successful in acquiring new customers and end users or expanding usage by existing customers and end users, our business will be harmed.

We believe that continued growth in our business is also dependent upon identifying, developing and maintaining strategic relationships with additional retail channels that can drive substantial revenue. If we fail to identify additional channel partners in a timely and cost-effective manner, or at all, or are unable to assist our current and future channel partners in independently selling and deploying our products and services, then our business, operating results, and financial condition could be adversely affected.

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Any failure to offer high-quality developer and customer support may adversely affect our relationships with our developers and customers.

High quality, ongoing developer and customer support are critical to the successful marketing, sale and adoption of our products and services. Many of our large customers depend on our customer support team to assist them in deploying our products and services effectively, help them resolve post-deployment issues quickly and provide ongoing support. As we grow our developer and customer base, we will need to further invest in and expand our developer and customer support teams, which could strain our resources and reduce profit margins. If we do not devote sufficient resources or otherwise do not help our developers and customers adopt our products and services, quickly resolve any post-implementation matters, and provide effective ongoing developer and customer support and training, our ability to expand sales to existing and future developers and customers and our reputation would be adversely affected. Our support teams will face additional challenges associated with our international operations, including those associated with delivering support and documentation in multiple languages. We might also face additional difficulties associated with providing customer support and warranties to our smart device distribution customers as we may not be able to control customer service terms of third party suppliers. Increased demand for developer and customer support, without corresponding revenue, could increase costs and adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition. Any failure to maintain high-quality developer and customer support, or a market perception that we do not maintain high-quality developer and customer support, could adversely affect our reputation, business, operating results and financial condition.

Our business depends on our strong reputation and the value of Tuya brand. If we are unable to maintain and enhance our Tuya brand and increase market awareness of Tuya and its products and services, our business, operating results and financial condition may be adversely affected.

We must maintain and enhance the “Tuya” brand identity and increase market awareness of Tuya-powered smart devices generally and our products and services. The successful promotion of our brand will depend on our efforts to achieve widespread acceptance of our platform and products and services, attract and retain customers and our ability to maintain our current market leadership and successfully differentiate our products and services from competitors. These efforts require substantial expenditures, and we anticipate that they will increase as our market becomes more competitive and as we expand into new markets. These investments in brand promotion and thought leadership may not yield increased revenue. To the extent they do, the resulting revenue still may not be enough to offset the increased expenses we incur. In addition, independent industry analysts often provide reviews of our products and competing products and services, which may significantly influence the perception of our products and services. If these reviews are negative or not as strong as reviews of our competitors’ products and services, our brand may be harmed. Adverse publicity (whether or not justified) relating to events or activities attributed to us, members of our workforce, agents, or third parties we rely on, may tarnish our reputation and reduce the value of our brand. Our brand value also depends on our ability to provide secure and trustworthy products and services as well as our ability to protect and use end users’ data in a manner that meets their expectations. In addition, a security incident which results in unauthorized disclosure of our end users’ sensitive data could cause material reputational harm. Damage to our reputation and loss of brand equity may reduce demand for our products and services and thus have an adverse effect on our future financial results, as well as require additional resources to rebuild our reputation and restore the value of the brands and could also reduce the trading price of the ADSs.

We could incur substantial costs in protecting or defending our intellectual property rights, and any failure to protect our intellectual property could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition.

Our success depends, in part, on our ability to protect our brand, trade secrets, trademarks, patents, domain names, copyrights and proprietary methods and technologies, whether registered or not, that we develop under patent and other intellectual property laws of China, the United States and other jurisdictions, so that we can prevent others from using our inventions and proprietary information. We currently rely on patents, trademarks,

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copyrights and trade secret law to protect our intellectual property rights. However, we cannot assure you that any of our intellectual property rights will not be challenged, invalidated or circumvented, or that our intellectual property will be sufficient to provide us with competitive advantages. In addition, we may be subject to allegation of infringement of other parties’ proprietary rights, and other parties may misappropriate our intellectual property rights, which would cause us to suffer economic or reputational damages. Because of the rapid pace of technological change, we cannot assure you that all of our proprietary technologies and similar intellectual property rights can be patented in a timely or cost-effective manner, or at all.

We maintain and facilitate certain technical measures and access control mechanisms internally to ensure secure access to our proprietary information by our employees and consultants. We also maintain internal policies requiring our employees and consultants to enter into confidentiality agreements to control access to our proprietary information. However, if our employees and consultants do not fully comply with these internal policies, such policies may not effectively prevent disclosure of our confidential information, and it may be possible for unauthorized parties to copy our software or other proprietary technology or information, or to develop similar software independently without our having an adequate remedy for unauthorized use or disclosure of our confidential information.

In addition, the laws of some countries do not protect intellectual property and other proprietary rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States. Statutory laws and regulations are subject to judicial interpretation and enforcement and may not be applied consistently due to the lack of clear guidance on statutory interpretation. Confidentiality, invention assignment and non-compete agreements may be breached by counterparties, and there may not be adequate remedies available to us for any such breach. Accordingly, we may not be able to effectively protect our intellectual property rights or to enforce our contractual rights. To the extent we expand our international activities, our exposure to unauthorized copying, transfer and use of our proprietary technology or information may increase.

Preventing any unauthorized use of our intellectual property is difficult and costly and the steps we take may be inadequate to prevent the misappropriation of our intellectual property. Litigation may be necessary in the future to enforce our intellectual property rights, determine the validity and scope of our proprietary rights or those of others, or defend against claims of infringement or invalidity. Such litigation could be costly, time-consuming and distracting to management, result in a diversion of significant resources, the narrowing or invalidation of portions of our intellectual property and have an adverse effect on our business, operating results and financial condition. Our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights may be met with defenses, counterclaims and countersuits attacking the validity and enforceability of our intellectual property rights or alleging that we infringe the counterclaimant’s own intellectual property. Any of our patents, trade secrets, copyrights, trademarks or other intellectual property rights could be challenged by others or invalidated through administrative process or litigation. We can provide no assurance that we will prevail in such litigation. In addition, our proprietary methods and technologies that are regarded as trade secrets may be leaked or otherwise become available to, or be independently discovered by, our competitors and in these cases we would not be able to assert any trade secret rights against those parties. Costly and time-consuming litigation could be necessary to enforce and determine the scope of our proprietary rights, and failure to obtain or maintain trade secret protection could adversely affect our competitive business position. To the extent that our employees or consultants use intellectual property owned by others in their work for us, disputes may arise as to the rights in related know-how and inventions.

There can be no assurance that our particular ways and means of protecting our intellectual property and proprietary rights, including business decisions about when to file patent applications and trademark applications, will be adequate to protect our business or that our competitors will not independently develop similar technology. We could be required to spend significant resources to monitor and protect our intellectual property rights. If we fail to protect and enforce our intellectual property and proprietary rights adequately, our competitors might gain access to our technology and our business, operating results and financial condition could be adversely affected.

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Unauthorized or improper disclosures of personal data, cyber-attacks or other security incidents or data breaches that affect our networks or systems, or those of our cloud service providers or our customers, whether inadvertent or purposeful, could degrade our ability to conduct our business, compromise the integrity of our products and services, platform and data, result in significant data losses and the theft of our intellectual property, damage our reputation, expose us to liability to third parties and require us to incur significant additional costs to maintain the security of our networks and data which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We depend significantly on our technology infrastructure, IT systems, data and other equipment and systems to conduct virtually all of our business operations, ranging from our internal operations and research and development activities to our marketing and sales efforts and communications with our customers, end users, suppliers and business partners. In addition, our products and services collect and store data of customers and end users, some of which may involve sensitive information, including personal data, trade secrets and other proprietary information. Internal or external individuals or entities may attempt to penetrate our network security, or that of our platform, and to disrupt or cause harm to our business operations, including by sabotaging or misappropriating our personal or proprietary information or that of our customers, end users, employees, suppliers and business partners or to cause interruptions of our products and services and platform. Because the vulnerabilities and techniques used by such individuals or entities to access, disrupt or sabotage devices, systems and networks change frequently and may not be recognized until launched against a target, we may be unable to anticipate these techniques, and we may not become aware in a timely manner of such a security breach, which could exacerbate any damage we experience.

While we take reasonable measures to protect the security of, and against unauthorized access to, our systems, as well as the security of personal data and proprietary information, it is possible that our security controls and other security practices we follow may not prevent the improper access to or disclosure of personal data or proprietary information. We also rely on systems provided by third parties, including our clients, which may also suffer security breaches or unauthorized access to or disclosure of personal data or proprietary information. Additionally, we depend on our employees and contractors to appropriately handle confidential and sensitive data, including customer data, and to deploy our IT resources in a safe and secure manner that does not expose our network systems to security breaches or the loss of data. Any data security incidents, including internal malfeasance by our employees, unauthorized access or usage, virus or similar breach or disruption of us or our service providers could result in loss of confidential or proprietary information or personal data, damage to our reputation, loss of customers and end users, litigation, regulatory investigations, fines, penalties and other liabilities. Accordingly, if our cybersecurity measures or those of our customers fail to protect against unauthorized access, attacks (which may include sophisticated cyberattacks), the compromise or mishandling of data, or other misconduct or malfeasance, including by computer hackers, employees, contractors, vendors, customers and business partners, as well as software bugs, human error or technical malfunctions, then our reputation, business, operating results and financial condition could be adversely affected. Cyberattacks and other security incidents aimed at our products could lead to third-party claims that our product failures have caused damage to our customers or end users, and this risk is enhanced by the increasingly connected nature of our products.

Cybersecurity threats and attacks that we may be subject to may take a variety of forms ranging from individuals or groups of hackers to sophisticated organizations, including state-sponsored actors. Cybersecurity risks range from viruses, worms, and other malicious software programs, including phishing attacks, to “mega breaches” targeted against cloud services and other hosted software, any of which can result in disclosure of confidential information and intellectual property, defective products, production downtimes, and compromised data, including personal data. As the techniques used to obtain unauthorized access or sabotage systems change frequently and generally are not identified until they are launched against a target, we may be unable to anticipate these attacks or to implement adequate preventative measures. There has been an increase in the frequency and sophistication of cyber and other security threats we face, and our customers are increasingly requiring cyber and other security protections and standards in our products, and we may incur additional costs to comply with such demands.

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Any unauthorized access, acquisition, use, or destruction of information we collect, store, transmit, or otherwise process, the unavailability of such information, or other disruptions of our ability to provide solutions to our clients, regardless of whether it originates or occurs on our systems or those of third party service providers or clients, could expose us to significant liability under our contracts, regulatory actions, litigation, investigations, remediation obligations, damage to our reputation and brand, theft of intellectual property, supplemental disclosure obligations, loss of customer, consumer, and partner confidence in the security of our applications, destruction of information, indemnity obligations, impairment to our business, and resulting fees, costs, expenses, loss of revenues, and other potential liabilities and harms to our business. In addition, if a high profile security breach occurs within our industry, our customers and potential customers may lose trust in the security of our systems and information even if we are not directly affected.

Many statutory requirements, both in China, the U.S., as well as in other jurisdictions in which we operate, include obligations for companies to notify individuals of security breaches involving certain personal data, which could result from breaches experienced by us or our external service providers. These laws are not consistent, and compliance in the event of a widespread data breach is difficult and may be costly. In addition, such mandatory disclosures could lead to negative publicity and may cause our current and prospective customers to lose confidence in the effectiveness of our data security measures. See “—Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Compliance with the rapidly evolving landscape of global data privacy and security laws may be challenging, and any failure or perceived failure to comply with such laws, or other concerns about our practices or policies with respect to the processing of personal data, could damage our reputation and deter current and potential customers and end users from using our platform and products and services or subject us to significant compliance costs or penalties, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.”

We may in the future become involved in legal proceedings, litigations and disputes relating to alleged infringement of intellectual property rights, which could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition.

There is considerable patent and other intellectual property development activity in our industry. Our future success depends, in part, on not infringing the intellectual property rights of others. Our competitors or other third parties may in the future claim that our products and services or platform and underlying technology infringe on their intellectual property rights, and we may be found to be infringing on such rights. We may be unaware of the intellectual property rights of others that may cover some or all of our technology. Any claims or litigation could cause us to incur significant expenses and, if successfully asserted against us, could require that we pay substantial damages or ongoing royalty payments, prevent us from offering our products and services, require us to develop alternative non-infringing technology or require that we comply with other unfavorable terms, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. We may also be obligated to indemnify our customers or business partners in connection with any such litigation and to obtain licenses or modify our products and services or platform, which could further exhaust our resources. Even if we were to prevail in the event of claims or litigation against us, any claim or litigation regarding intellectual property could be costly and time-consuming and divert the attention of our management and other employees from our business. Patent infringement, trademark infringement, trade secret misappropriation and other intellectual property claims and proceedings brought against us, whether successful or not, could harm our brand, business, operating results and financial condition.

If we are unable to hire, retain and motivate qualified personnel, our business will suffer.

Our future success depends, in part, on our ability to continue to attract and retain highly skilled personnel. We believe that there is, and will continue to be, intense competition for highly skilled management, technical, sales and other personnel with experience in the industries in which we operate. We must provide competitive compensation packages and a high-quality work environment to hire, retain and motivate employees. If we are unable to retain and motivate our existing employees and attract qualified personnel to fill important positions,

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we may be unable to manage our business effectively, including the development, marketing and sale of our products and services, which could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition. To the extent we hire personnel from competitors, we also may be subject to allegations that they have been improperly solicited or divulged proprietary or other confidential information.

We may acquire or invest in business, technologies, services, products and other assets, which may divert our management’s attention and result in the incurrence of debt or dilution to our shareholders. We may be unable to integrate acquired businesses and technologies successfully or achieve the expected benefits of such acquisitions.

We may evaluate and consider potential strategic transactions, including acquisitions of, or investments in, businesses, technologies, services, products and other assets in the future. We also may enter into relationships with other businesses to expand our products and services, which could involve preferred or exclusive licenses, additional channels of distribution, discount pricing or investments in other companies.

Any acquisition, investment or business relationship may result in unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures. In particular, we may encounter difficulties assimilating or integrating the businesses, technologies, products, personnel or operations of the acquired companies, particularly if the key personnel of the acquired company choose not to work for us, their products or services are not easily adapted to work with our platform, or we have difficulty retaining the customers of any acquired business due to changes in ownership, management or otherwise. Acquisitions also may disrupt our business, divert our resources or require significant management attention that would otherwise be available for development of our existing business. Moreover, the anticipated benefits of any acquisition, investment or business relationship may not be realized or we may be exposed to unknown risks or liabilities.

Negotiating these transactions can be time consuming, difficult and expensive, and our ability to complete these transactions may often be subject to approvals that are beyond our control. Consequently, these transactions, even if announced, may not be completed. For one or more of those transactions, we may:

Negative publicity about us, our products and services, operations and our directors, management and business partners may adversely affect our reputation and business.

We may, from time to time, receive negative publicity, including negative internet and blog postings, ratings or comments on social media platforms or through traditional media about our company, our business, our directors and management, our brands, our products and services, our suppliers or other business partners. Certain of such negative publicity may be the result of malicious harassment or unfair competition acts by third parties. We may even be subject to government or regulatory investigation as a result of such third-party conduct and may be required to spend significant time and incur substantial costs to defend ourselves against such third-party conduct, and we may not be able to conclusively refute each of the allegations within a reasonable period of time, or at all.

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We may receive complaints from our customers and end users on our products and services, pricing and customer support. If we do not handle customer complaints effectively, our brand and reputation may suffer, our customers and end users may lose confidence in us and they may reduce or cease their use of our products and services. Our success depends, in part, on our ability to generate positive customer feedback and minimize negative feedback on social media channels where existing and potential customers and end users seek and share information. If actions we take or changes we make to our products and services or platform upset these customers and end users, their online commentary could negatively affect our brand and reputation. Complaints or negative publicity about us, our products and services or platform could materially and adversely impact our ability to attract and retain customers and end users, our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Seasonality may cause fluctuations in our sales and operating results.

We have in the past experienced, and expect in the future to continue to experience, seasonal fluctuations in our revenue and sales from time to time, with the fourth quarter historically being our strongest quarter for sales to new and existing customers, as a result of the holiday season and customers’ buying patterns. We have experienced lower growth in revenue in the first quarter as a result the reduced capacity of OEM customers located in China due to the Lunar New Year. The rapid growth in our business has offset this seasonal trend to some extent, however, we expect the historical seasonality trends to continue to impact our results of operations and financial condition.

We face certain risks relating to the real properties that we lease.

We lease office spaces from third parties for our operations in China, the United States, India, Germany, Japan and Colombia. Any limitations on the leased properties, or lessors’ title to such properties, may impact our use of the offices, or in extreme cases, result in relocation, which may in turn adversely affect our business operations. In addition, certain lease agreements of our leased properties in China have not been registered with the relevant PRC government authorities as required by PRC law, and although failure to do so does not in itself invalidate the leases, we may be exposed to potential fines if we fail to rectify within the prescribed time period after receiving notices from the relevant PRC government authorities. Furthermore, certain lessors of our leased properties have not provided us with valid property ownership certificates or any other documentation proving their right to lease those properties to us. As of the date of this prospectus, we are not aware of any actions or claims raised by any third parties challenging our use of these properties we currently lease, nor have we received any notices from the PRC government authorities. If our lessors are not the owners of the properties or they have not obtained consents from the owners or their lessors or permits from the relevant government authorities, our leases could be invalidated. If leases are invalid, we may face the risk of moving out of the leased property.

Changes in laws and regulations related to the internet or changes in the internet infrastructure itself may diminish the demand for our products and services, and could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition.

The future success of our business depends on the continued use of the internet as well as continued demand for smart devices and our products and services. The PRC and foreign governments have in the past adopted, and may in the future adopt, laws or regulations affecting the use of the internet as a commercial medium.

Almost all access to the internet in China is maintained through state-owned telecommunication operators under the administrative control and regulatory supervision of the MIIT. In addition, the national networks in China are connected to the internet through state-owned international gateways, which are the only channels through which a domestic user can connect to the internet outside of China. We may face similar or other limitations in other countries in which we operate. We may not have access to alternative networks in the event of disruptions, failures or other problems with the internet infrastructure in China or elsewhere. In addition, the internet infrastructure in the countries in which we operate may not support the demands associated with continued growth in internet usage.

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Changes in these laws or regulations could require us to modify our products and services in order to comply with these changes. In addition, government agencies or private organizations have imposed and may impose additional taxes, fees or other charges for accessing the internet or commerce conducted via the internet. These laws or charges could limit the growth of internet-related commerce or communications generally, or result in reductions in the demand for internet-based products and services such as our products and platform. In addition, the use of the internet as a business tool could be adversely affected due to delays in the development or adoption of new standards and protocols to handle increased demands of internet activity, security, reliability, cost, ease-of-use, accessibility and quality of service. The performance of the internet and its acceptance as a business tool has been adversely affected by “viruses,” “worms,” and similar malicious programs. If the use of the internet is reduced as a result of these or other issues, then demand for our products and services could decline, which could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition.

We may have insufficient computing resources, transmission bandwidth and storage space, which could result in disruptions and our business, results of operations and financial condition could be adversely affected.

Our operations are dependent in part upon transmission bandwidth provided by third-party telecommunications network providers, access to data centers to house our servers and other computing resources. There can be no assurance that we are adequately prepared for unexpected increases in bandwidth and data center demands by our customers and end users. The bandwidth and data centers we use may become unavailable for a variety of reasons, including service outages, payment disputes, network providers going out of business, natural disasters, networks imposing traffic limits, or governments adopting regulations that impact network operations. These bandwidth providers may become unwilling to sell us adequate transmission bandwidth at fair market prices, if at all. This risk is heightened where market power is concentrated with one or a few major networks. We also may be unable to move quickly enough to augment capacity to reflect growing traffic or security demands. Failure to put in place the capacity we require could result in a reduction in, or disruption of, service to our customers and ultimately a loss of those customers. Such a failure could result in our inability to acquire new customers demanding capacity not available on our platform. See also “—We rely upon third-party providers of cloud-based infrastructure to host our platform. Any disruption in the operations of these third-party providers, limitations on capacity or interference with our use could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.”

Our products and services rely on the stable performance of servers, networks, IT infrastructure and data processing systems, and any disruption to such servers, networks, assets or systems due to internal or external factors could diminish demand for our products and services, harm our business, our reputation and results of operations and subject us to liability.

We rely in part upon the stable performance of our servers, networks, IT infrastructure, and data processing systems for provision of our products and services. Disruptions to such servers, networks, assets or systems may occur due to internal or external factors, such as inappropriate maintenance, defects in the servers, cyber-attacks or other malicious attacks or hacks targeted at us, occurrence of catastrophic events or human errors. Such disruptions could result in negative publicity, loss of or delay in market acceptance of our products and services, loss of competitive position, lower customer retention or claims by customers for losses sustained by them, or loss, destruction or unauthorized use of, or access to, data (including personal data for which we may incur liability under applicable data protection laws). In such an event, we may need to expend additional resources to bring the incident to an end, mitigate the liability associated with the fallout of such incident, make notifications to regulators and individuals affected, replace damaged systems or assets, defend ourselves in legal proceedings and compensate customers or end users. In addition, we may not carry insurance to compensate us for any losses that may result from claims arising from disruption in servers. As a result, our reputation and our brand could be harmed, and our business, results of operations and financial condition may be adversely affected.

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We may, from time to time, rely on intellectual properties that we license from third parties, including product designs that are integrated with our internally developed products.

We may, from time to time, rely on intellectual properties that we license from third parties, including third-party product design, which is used with certain of our products. Although we may have executed contracts containing certain warranties of non-infringement of such licensed intellectual properties with such third parties, we cannot be certain that our licensors are not infringing the intellectual property rights of third parties or that our licensors have sufficient rights to the licensed intellectual property in all jurisdictions in which we may sell our products. Some of our agreements with our licensors may be terminated for convenience by them. If we are unable to continue to license any of these intellectual properties on commercially reasonable terms, we will face delays in releases of certain products or we will be required to re-design our products until equivalent, non-infringing design can be licensed or developed and integrated into our current products. This effort could take significant time (during which we would be unable to continue to offer our affected products) and expense and may ultimately not be successful. In addition, our inability to obtain certain licenses or other rights might require us to engage in litigation regarding these matters, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, prospects, and financial condition.

We and our directors, management, employees and shareholders may from time to time be subject to claims, controversies, lawsuits, other legal and administrative proceedings and fines, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and reputation.

We are currently not party to any material legal or administrative proceedings. However, we have been, and may from time to time in the future be, subject to or involved in various claims, controversies, lawsuits, other legal and administrative proceedings and fines relating to our business operations inside and outside China. Lawsuits and other administrative or legal proceedings that may arise in the course of our operations can involve substantial costs, including the costs associated with investigation, litigation and possible settlement, judgment, penalty or fine. In addition, lawsuits and other legal and administrative proceedings may be costly and time consuming and may require a commitment of management and personnel resources that will be diverted from our normal business operations. There may also be negative publicity associated with litigation that could decrease consumer acceptance of our product offerings, regardless of whether the allegations are valid or whether we are ultimately found liable. In addition, our directors, management, shareholders and employees may from time to time be subject to litigation, regulatory investigations, proceedings and/or negative publicity or otherwise face potential liability and expense in relation to commercial, labor, employment, securities or other matters, which could adversely affect our reputation and results of operations. As a result, litigation may adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations or liquidity.

We may require additional capital to support our business and response to business opportunities, and this capital might not be available on acceptable terms, if at all.

We intend to continue to make investments to support our business and may require additional funds. In particular, we may seek additional funds to develop new products and enhance our platform and existing products, expand our operations, including our sales and marketing efforts and our presence outside of China, improve our infrastructure or acquire complementary businesses, technologies, services, products and other assets. Accordingly, we may need to engage in equity or debt financings to secure additional funds. If we raise additional funds through future issuances of equity or convertible debt securities, our shareholders could suffer significant dilution, and any new equity securities we issue could have rights, preferences and privileges superior to holders of our ordinary shares. Any debt financing that we may secure in the future could involve restrictive covenants relating to our capital raising activities and other financial and operational matters, which may make it more difficult for us to obtain additional capital and to pursue business opportunities. We may not be able to obtain additional financing on terms favorable to us, if at all. If we are unable to obtain adequate financing or financing on terms satisfactory to us when we require it, our ability to continue to support our business growth, scale our infrastructure, develop product enhancements and to respond to business challenges could be significantly impaired, and our business, operating results and financial condition may be adversely affected.

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We face exposure to foreign currency exchange rate fluctuations, and such fluctuations could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition.

As we continue to expand our international operations, we will become increasingly exposed to the effects of fluctuations in currency exchange rates. Although the majority of our cash generated from revenue is denominated in Renminbi, a small amount is denominated in other currencies, and our expenses are generally denominated in the currencies of the jurisdictions in which we conduct our operations. Because we conduct business in currencies other than U.S. dollars but report our operating results in U.S. dollars, we also face translation exposure to fluctuations in currency exchange rates, which could hinder our ability to predict our future results and earnings and could impact our operating results.

The value of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar and other currencies has in the past fluctuated significantly, and may in the future continue to do so, affected by, among other things, changes in political and economic conditions and the foreign exchange policy adopted by the PRC government. With the development of the foreign exchange market and progress towards interest rate liberalization and Renminbi internationalization, the PRC government may in the future announce further changes to the exchange rate system, and we cannot assure you that the Renminbi will not appreciate or depreciate significantly in value against the U.S. dollar in the future. It is difficult to predict how market forces or PRC or U.S. government policy may impact the exchange rate between the Renminbi and the U.S. dollar in the future.

We are a holding company and we rely on dividends paid by our WFOE in China for our cash needs. Any significant fluctuation of Renminbi against the U.S. dollar could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition, and the value of any dividends payable in U.S. dollars. To the extent that we need to convert U.S. dollars we receive from this offering into Renminbi for our operations, appreciation of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar would have an adverse effect on the Renminbi amount we would receive. Conversely, if we decide to convert our Renminbi into U.S. dollars for the purpose of making payments for dividends on our ordinary shares or for other business purposes, appreciation of the U.S. dollar against the Renminbi would have a negative effect on the U.S. dollar amount.

If we fail to establish and maintain proper and effective internal control over financial reporting to remediate our material weaknesses, we may be unable to accurately report our results of operations, meet our reporting obligations or prevent fraud.

Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404, requires that we establish and maintain internal control over financial reporting and disclosure controls and procedures. An effective internal control environment is necessary to enable us to produce reliable financial reports and is an important component of our efforts to prevent and detect financial reporting errors and fraud. Upon the completion of this offering, we will become a public company subject to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Section 404 requires that we include a report from management on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting in our annual report on Form 20-F beginning with our annual report for the fiscal year ending December 31, 2022. In addition, once we cease to be an “emerging growth company” as such term is defined in the JOBS Act, our independent registered public accounting firm must attest to and report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. In addition, after we become a public company, our reporting obligations may place a significant strain on our management, operational and financial resources and systems for the foreseeable future. We may be unable to timely complete our evaluation testing and any required remediation.

In the course of preparing and auditing our consolidated financial statements as of and for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020, we and our independent registered public accounting firm identified a material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting. According to the U.S. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, a “material weakness” is a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of our company’s

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annual or interim consolidated financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. The material weakness identified relates to our lack of sufficient and competent financial reporting and accounting personnel with appropriate knowledge and experience to address complex U.S. GAAP accounting issues and to prepare and review financial statements and related disclosures in accordance with U.S. GAAP and SEC reporting requirements. We are in the process of implementing a number of measures to address the material weakness. See “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Internal Control Over Financial Reporting.” However, we cannot assure you that these measures may fully address the material weakness and deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting or that we may conclude that they have been fully remediated.

During the course of documenting and testing our internal control procedures, in order to satisfy the requirements of Section 404, we or our auditor may identify other deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting that are deemed to be material weaknesses and render our internal control over financial reporting ineffective. In addition, if we fail to maintain the adequacy of our internal control over financial reporting, as these standards are modified, supplemented or amended from time to time, we may not be able to conclude on an ongoing basis that we have effective internal control over financial reporting in accordance with Section 404. If we fail to achieve and maintain an effective internal control environment, we could suffer material misstatements in our financial statements and fail to meet our reporting obligations, which would likely cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information. This could in turn limit our access to capital markets, harm our results of operations, and lead to a decline in the trading price of the ADSs. Additionally, ineffective internal control over financial reporting could expose us to increased risk of fraud or misuse of corporate assets and subject us to potential delisting from the stock exchange on which we list, regulatory investigations and civil or criminal sanctions. We may also be required to restate our financial statements for prior periods.

Our business is subject to the risks of earthquakes, fire, floods, pandemics and other natural catastrophic events, and to interruption by man-made problems such as power disruptions or terrorism.

A significant natural disaster, such as an earthquake, fire, flood or pandemic, occurring at our headquarters, at one of our local offices and facilities or where a business partner is located could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition. Further, if a natural disaster or man-made problem were to affect our service providers, this could adversely affect the ability of our customers and end users to use our products and services. In addition, natural disasters and acts of terrorism could cause disruptions in our or our customers’ businesses, national economies or the world economy as a whole, as is the case currently due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We also rely on our network and third-party infrastructure and enterprise applications and internal technology systems for our engineering, sales and marketing, and operations activities. Although we maintain incident management and disaster response plans, in the event of a major disruption caused by a natural disaster or man-made problem, we may be unable to continue our operations and may endure system interruptions, reputational harm, delays in our development activities, lengthy interruptions in service, breaches of data security and loss of critical data, any of which could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition.

In addition, computer malware, viruses and computer hacking, fraudulent use attempts and phishing attacks have become more prevalent in our industry, have occurred on our platform and have impacted some of our customers (i.e., solution providers) in the past and may occur on our platform in the future. Any failure to maintain performance, reliability, security, integrity and availability of our products and services and technical infrastructure, including third-party infrastructure and services upon which we rely, may expose us to significant consequences, including legal and financial exposure and loss of customers and end users, and give rise to litigation, consumer protection actions, or harm to our reputation, and as a result, may hinder our ability to retain existing customers and end users and attract new customers and end users.

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We have limited business insurance coverage, so that any uninsured occurrence of business disruption may result in substantial costs to us and the diversion of our resources, which could have an adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition.

While we do maintain information and network technology errors or omissions liability insurance and cyber enterprise risk management insurance, our business insurance is limited; we do not maintain any liability insurance or property insurance policies covering our equipment and facilities for injuries, death or losses due to fire, earthquake, flood or any other disaster. Consistent with customary industry practice in China, we do not maintain business interruption insurance, nor do we maintain key-man life insurance. We have determined that the costs of insuring for related risks and the difficulties associated with acquiring such insurance on commercially reasonable terms make it impractical. Any uninsured damage to our facilities or technology infrastructures or disruption of our business operations could require us to incur substantial costs and divert our resources, which could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We have granted, and may continue to grant, share-based awards, which will increase our share-based compensation and may have an adverse effect on our results of operations.

We have adopted a share option scheme in December 2014 (the “2015 Equity Incentive Plan” or “2015 Plan,” as amended in July 2020 and February 2021). We account for compensation costs for all share-based awards using a fair-value based method and recognize expenses in our consolidated statements of comprehensive loss in accordance with U.S. GAAP. The maximum aggregate number of shares that we are authorized to issue pursuant to the 2015 Equity Incentive Plan, as amended, is 76,778,005, provided that, starting on January 1, 2022, on the first day of each fiscal year thereafter, the total number of shares available for issuance under the 2015 Plan will be increased by an amount equal to the least of (i) 2% of the aggregate number of shares of all classes of our ordinary shares issued and outstanding on the last day of the immediately preceding fiscal year and (ii) such number of shares as determined by our board of directors. As of the date of this prospectus, options to purchase a total of 62,965,000 have been granted and are outstanding under such plan. We did not issue any restricted shares or restricted share units under such plan as of the date of the prospectus. In 2019 and 2020, we recorded US$5.2 million and US$9.4 million, respectively, in share-based compensation expenses, respectively. In January 2021, we entered into agreements with certain optionees under the 2015 Plan to amend the exercise price of certain outstanding share options held by these optionees located outside the United States to purchase our ordinary shares. As a result of this share option repricing, we estimated a total incremental share-based compensation expense of approximately US$8.8 million to be recorded on our consolidated financial statements starting from 2021, which included approximately US$2.0 million (related to the legally vested share options) to be recognized immediately in January 2021, and the remaining US$6.8 million (related to the legally unvested share options) to be recognized on a prospective basis over the remaining requisite service period for the optionees. In January 2021, we granted total 9,255,000 share options under the 2015 Plan to our employees and non-employees, which was only subject to service conditions. As a result of this share option grant, we estimated a total share-based compensation expense of approximately US$113.1 million to be recorded on our consolidated financial statements over a vesting period of four years starting from 2021. In late February 2021, we granted a total of 5,405,000 share options under the 2015 Plan to our employees and non-employees, which was only subject to service conditions. As a result of this share option grant, we estimated a total share-based compensation expense of approximately US$77.1 million to be recorded on our consolidated financial statements over a vesting period of four years starting from 2021. We believe the granting of share-based awards is of significant importance to our ability to attract and retain key personnel and employees, and we will continue to grant share-based awards in the future. As a result, our expenses associated with share-based compensation will increase, which may have an adverse effect on our results of operations.

The estimates of market opportunity, forecasts of market growth included in this prospectus may prove to be inaccurate, and any real or perceived inaccuracies may harm our reputation and negatively affect our business.

Market opportunity estimates and growth forecasts included in this prospectus are subject to significant uncertainty and are based on assumptions and estimates that may not prove to be accurate. The variables that go

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into the calculation of our market opportunity are subject to change over time, and there is no guarantee that any particular number or percentage of addressable companies or end users covered by our market opportunity estimates will purchase our products and services at all or generate any particular level of revenue for us. Even if the market in which we compete meets the size estimates and growth forecasted in this prospectus, our business could fail to grow for a variety of reasons, including reasons outside of our control, such as competition in our industry.

Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure

If the PRC government finds that the agreements that establish the structure for operating some of our operations in China do not comply with PRC regulations relating to the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations.

Foreign ownership of telecommunication businesses is subject to restrictions under current PRC laws and regulations. For example, foreign investors are generally not allowed to own more than 50% of the equity interests in an information service provider or other value-added telecommunication service provider (other than operating e-commerce) and the major foreign investor in a value-added telecommunication service provider in China must have experience in providing value-added telecommunications services overseas and maintain a good track record in accordance with the Guidance Catalog of Industries for Foreign Investment promulgated in 2007, as amended, the Catalog of Industries for Encouraged Foreign Investment (2019 Edition), the Special Management Measures (Negative List) for the Access of Foreign Investment (2020 Edition), and other applicable laws and regulations.

Accordingly, none of our subsidiaries is eligible to provide information service or other value-added telecommunication service, which foreign-owned companies are restricted from conducting in China. To comply with PRC laws and regulations, we may only conduct such business activities through our VIEs in China.

We are a Cayman Islands company and currently conduct substantially all of our business operations in the PRC through Tuya Information, our wholly-owned subsidiary incorporated in the PRC. We have, through Tuya Information, entered into a series of contractual arrangements with our VIE and its shareholders, respectively, which enable us to (i) exercise effective control over our VIE, (ii) receive substantially all of the economic benefits of our VIE, (iii) have the pledge right over the equity interests in our VIE as the pledgee; and (iv) have an exclusive option to purchase all or part of the equity interests in our VIE when and to the extent permitted by PRC law. As a result of these contractual arrangements, we have control over and are the primary beneficiary of our VIE and hence consolidate their financial results under U.S. GAAP. See “Corporate History and Structure” for further details.

In the opinion of our PRC legal counsel, Jia Yuan Law Offices, (i) the ownership structures of our WFOE and our VIE in China, both currently and immediately after giving effect to this offering, are not in violation of provisions of applicable PRC laws and regulations currently in effect; and (ii) the contractual arrangements between our WFOE, our VIE and its shareholders governed by PRC law are not in violation of provisions of applicable PRC laws or regulations currently in effect, and valid and binding upon each party to such arrangements and enforceable against each party thereto in accordance with their terms and applicable PRC laws and regulations currently in effect. However, we have been further advised by our PRC legal counsel that there are substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current and future PRC laws, regulations and rules. Thus, the PRC governmental authorities may take a view contrary to the opinion of our PRC legal counsel. It is uncertain whether any new PRC laws or regulations relating to variable interest entity structure will be adopted or if adopted, what they would provide. If we or our VIE is found to be in violation of any existing or future PRC laws or regulations, or fail to obtain or maintain any of the required permits or approvals to operate our business, the relevant PRC governmental authorities would have broad discretion to take action in dealing with such violations or failures, including:

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Any of these events could cause significant disruption to our business operations and severely damage our reputation, which would in turn have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. If occurrences of any of these events results in our inability to direct the activities of our VIE in China that most significantly impact its economic performance and/or our failure to receive the economic benefits and residual returns from our VIE, and we are unable to restructure our ownership structure and operations in a satisfactory manner, we may not be able to consolidate the financial results of our VIE in our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

We rely on contractual arrangements with our VIE and its shareholders to use, or otherwise benefit from, certain licenses and approvals we may need in the future, which may not be as effective as direct ownership in providing operational control.

We have relied and expect to continue to rely on contractual arrangements with our VIE and its shareholders to conduct a portion of our operations in China. These contractual arrangements, however, may not be as effective as direct ownership in providing us with control over our VIE. For example, our VIE and its shareholders could breach their contractual arrangements with us by, among other things, failing to conduct the operations of our VIE in an acceptable manner or taking other actions that are detrimental to our interests.

If we had direct ownership of our VIE in China, we would be able to exercise our rights as a shareholder to effect changes in the board of directors of our VIE, which in turn could implement changes, subject to any applicable fiduciary obligations, at the management and operational level. However, under the current contractual arrangements, we rely on the performance by our VIE and its shareholders of their obligations under the contracts to exercise control over our VIE. If any dispute relating to these contracts remains unresolved, we will have to enforce our rights under these contracts through the operations of PRC law and arbitration, litigation and other legal proceedings and therefore will be subject to uncertainties in the PRC legal system. See “—Any failure by our VIE or its shareholders to perform their obligations under our contractual arrangements with them would have a material and adverse effect on part of our business”.

Any failure by our VIE or its shareholders to perform their obligations under our contractual arrangements with them would have a material and adverse effect on part of our business.

If our VIE or its shareholders fail to perform their respective obligations under the contractual arrangements, we may have to incur substantial costs and expend additional resources to enforce such arrangements. We may also have to rely on legal remedies under PRC law, including seeking specific performance or injunctive relief, and contractual remedies, which we cannot assure you will be sufficient or effective under PRC law. For example, if the shareholders of our VIE were to refuse to transfer their equity interests in our VIE to us or our designee when we exercise the purchase option pursuant to these contractual arrangements, or if they were otherwise to act in bad faith toward us, then we may have to take legal actions to compel them to perform their contractual obligations.

All the agreements under our contractual arrangements are governed by PRC law and provide for the resolution of disputes through arbitration in China. Accordingly, these contracts would be interpreted in

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accordance with PRC law and any disputes would be resolved in accordance with PRC legal procedures. As a result, uncertainties in the PRC legal system could limit our ability to enforce these contractual arrangements. See “—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—The uncertainties in the PRC legal system could materially and adversely affect us”. Meanwhile, there are very few precedents and little formal guidance as to how contractual arrangements in the context of a consolidated variable interest entity should be interpreted or enforced under PRC law. There remain significant uncertainties regarding the ultimate outcome of such arbitration if legal action becomes necessary. In addition, under PRC law, rulings by arbitrators are final, parties cannot appeal the arbitration results in courts, and if the losing parties fail to carry out the arbitration awards within a prescribed time limit, the prevailing parties may only enforce the arbitration awards in PRC courts through arbitration award recognition proceedings, which would require additional expenses and delay. In the event we are unable to enforce these contractual arrangements, or if we suffer significant delay or other obstacles in the process of enforcing these contractual arrangements, we may not be able to exert effective control over our VIE, and our business financial condition and results of operations may be negatively affected.

The shareholders of our VIE may have potential conflicts of interest with us, which may materially and adversely affect part of our business.

The shareholders of our VIE may have actual or potential conflicts of interest with us. These shareholders may breach, or cause our VIE to breach, or refuse to renew, the existing contractual arrangements we have with them and our VIE, which would have a material and adverse effect on our ability to effectively control our VIE and receive economic benefits from them. For example, the shareholders may be able to cause our agreements with our VIE to be performed in a manner adverse to us by, among other things, failing to remit payments due under the contractual arrangements to us on a timely basis. We cannot assure you that when conflicts of interest arise any or all of these shareholders will act in the best interests of our company or such conflicts will be resolved in our favor.

Currently, we do not have any arrangements to address potential conflicts of interest between these shareholders and our company, except that we may invoke the right under the equity pledge agreements with the shareholders of the VIE to enforce the equity pledge in the case of the shareholders’ breach of the contractual arrangements. For individuals who are also our directors and officers, we rely on them to abide by the laws of the Cayman Islands, which provide that directors and officers owe a fiduciary duty to the company that requires them to act in good faith and in what they believe to be the best interests of the company and not to use their position for personal gains. The shareholders of our VIE have executed powers of attorney to appoint one of our WFOE or a person designated by one of our WFOE to vote on their behalf and exercise voting rights as shareholders of our VIE. If we cannot resolve any conflict of interest or dispute between us and the shareholders of our VIE, we would have to rely on legal proceedings, which could result in disruption of part of our business and subject us to substantial uncertainty as to the outcome of any such legal proceedings.

The shareholders of our VIE may be involved in personal disputes with third parties or other incidents that may have an adverse effect on their respective equity interests in our VIE and the validity or enforceability of our contractual arrangements with our VIE and its shareholders. For example, in the event that any of the shareholders of our VIE divorces his or her spouse, the spouse may claim that the equity interest of the VIE held by such shareholder is part of their community property and should be divided between such shareholder and the spouse. If such claim is supported by the court, the relevant equity interest may be obtained by the shareholder’s spouse or another third party who is not subject to obligations under our contractual arrangements, which could result in a loss of the effective control over the VIE by us. Similarly, if any of the equity interests of our VIE is inherited by a third party with whom the current contractual arrangements are not binding, we could lose our control over the VIE or have to maintain such control by incurring unpredictable costs, which could cause significant disruption to part of our business and operations and harm our financial condition and results of operations.

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Contractual arrangements we have entered into with our VIE may be subject to scrutiny by the PRC tax authorities. A finding that we owe additional taxes could negatively affect our financial condition and the value of your investment.

Under applicable PRC laws and regulations, arrangements and transactions among related parties may be subject to audit or challenge by the PRC tax authorities. We could face material and adverse tax consequences if the PRC tax authorities determine that the contractual arrangements in relation to our VIE were not entered into on an arm’s-length basis in such a way as to result in an impermissible reduction in taxes under applicable PRC laws, rules and regulations, and adjust income of our VIE in the form of a transfer pricing adjustment. A transfer pricing adjustment could, among other things, result in a reduction of expense deductions recorded by our VIE for PRC tax purposes, which could in turn increase their tax liabilities without reducing our PRC subsidiaries’ tax expenses. In addition, the PRC tax authorities may impose late payment fees and other administrative sanctions on our VIE for the adjusted but unpaid taxes according to the applicable regulations. Our financial position could be materially and adversely affected if our VIE’s tax liabilities increase or if they are required to pay late payment fees and other penalties.

We may lose the ability to use and benefit from assets held by our VIE that are material or supplementary to the operation of our business if our VIE goes bankrupt or becomes subject to dissolution or liquidation proceeding.

As part of our contractual arrangements with our VIE, such entity may in the future hold certain assets that are material or supplementary to the operation of our business. If our VIE goes bankrupt and all or part of its assets become subject to liens or rights of creditors, we may be unable to continue some or all of our business activities we currently conduct through the contractual arrangement, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Under the contractual arrangements, our VIE may not, in any manner, sell, transfer, mortgage or dispose of their assets or legal or beneficial interests in the business without our prior consent. If our VIE undergoes voluntary or involuntary liquidation proceeding, unrelated creditors may claim rights to some or all of these assets, thereby hindering our ability to operate part of our business, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Substantial uncertainties exist with respect to the interpretation and implementation of the newly enacted Foreign Investment Law and how it may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and operations.

The value-added telecommunications services that we conduct through our VIE and its subsidiaries are subject to foreign investment restrictions set forth in the Special Management Measures (Negative List) for the Access of Foreign Investment issued by the Ministry of Commerce, or the MOFCOM, and the National Development and Reform Commission, or the NDRC, effective July 2020.

On March 15, 2019, the National People’s Congress promulgated the Foreign Investment Law, or the Foreign Investment Law (2019), which became effective on January 1, 2020 and replaced the Sino-Foreign Equity Joint Venture Enterprise Law, the Sino-Foreign Cooperative Joint Venture Enterprise Law and the Wholly Foreign-Owned Enterprise Law to become the legal foundation for foreign investment in the PRC. Since it is relatively new, uncertainties still exist in relation to its interpretation and implementation. For instance, under the Foreign Investment Law (2019), “foreign investment” refers to the investment activities directly or indirectly conducted by foreign individuals, enterprises or other entities in China. Though it does not explicitly classify contractual arrangements as a form of foreign investment, there is no assurance that foreign investment via contractual arrangements would not be interpreted as a type of indirect foreign investment activities in the future. In addition, the definition of foreign investment contains a catch-all provision which includes investments made by foreign investors through means stipulated in laws, administrative regulations or provisions of the State Council. Therefore, it still leaves leeway for future laws, administrative regulations or provisions promulgated by the State Council to provide for contractual arrangements as a form of foreign investment. In any of these cases,

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it will be uncertain whether our contractual arrangements will be deemed to be in violation of the market access requirements for foreign investment under the PRC laws and regulations. If further actions shall be taken under future laws, administrative regulations or provisions of the State Council, we may face substantial uncertainties as to whether we can complete such actions. Failure to do so could materially and adversely affect our current corporate structure, corporate governance and operations.

Our post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association designate the courts of the Cayman Islands as the sole and exclusive judicial forum for certain legal actions related to us, which may discourage lawsuits with respect to such claims.

Our post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association provide that the courts of the Cayman Islands will be the sole and exclusive forum for lawsuits asserting certain stockholder claims (including claims asserted derivatively for our benefit), such as claims against directors and officers for breach of a fiduciary duty, claims arising under any provision of the Companies Act or our post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association, or claims governed by the internal affairs doctrine; additionally, the federal courts of the United States of America shall have exclusive jurisdiction for claims arising under the federal securities laws of the United States, unless otherwise agreed by us in writing. This is a general summary of the article; you should refer to the language of our post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association for details.

Because the applicability of the exclusive forum provision is limited to the extent permitted by applicable law, we do not intend for the exclusive forum provision to apply to suits brought to enforce any duty or liability created by the Exchange Act or any other claim for which the federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction, and acknowledge that federal courts have concurrent jurisdiction over all suits brought to enforce any duty or liability created by the Securities Act. We note that there is uncertainty as to whether a court would enforce the provision as it applies to the Securities Act and that investors cannot waive compliance with the federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder may have the effect of discouraging lawsuits against our directors and officers.

Risks Related to Doing Business in China

A severe or prolonged downturn in the PRC or global economy could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

The global macroeconomic environment is facing challenges, including the economic slowdown in the Eurozone since 2014, potential impact of the United Kingdom’s exit from the EU on January 31, 2020, and the adverse impact on the global economies and financial markets as the COVID-19 outbreak continues to evolve into a worldwide health crisis in 2020. The growth of the PRC economy has slowed down since 2012 compared to the previous decade and the trend may continue. There is considerable uncertainty over the long-term effects of the expansionary monetary and fiscal policies adopted by the central banks and financial authorities of some of the world’s leading economies, including the United States and China. There have been concerns over unrest and terrorist threats in the Middle East, Europe and Africa and over the conflicts involving Ukraine, Syria and North Korea. There have also been concerns on the relationship among China and other Asian countries, which may result in or intensify potential conflicts in relation to territorial disputes, and the trade disputes between the United States and China. The ongoing trade tensions between the United States and China may have tremendous negative impact on the economies of not merely the two countries concerned, but the global economy as a whole. It is unclear whether these challenges and uncertainties will be contained or resolved, and what effects they may have on the global political and economic conditions in the long term.

Economic conditions in China are sensitive to global economic conditions, changes in domestic economic and political policies, and the expected or perceived overall economic growth rate in China. While the economy in China has grown significantly over the past decades, growth has been uneven, both geographically and among

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various sectors of the economy, and the rate of growth has been slowing in recent years. Although growth of China’s economy remained relatively stable, there is a possibility that China’s economic growth may materially decline in the near future. Any severe or prolonged slowdown in the global or PRC economy may materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Changes in China’s economic, political or social conditions or government policies could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Substantially all of our assets and operations are located in China. Accordingly, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may be influenced to a significant degree by political, economic and social conditions in China generally. The Chinese economy differs from the economies of most developed countries in many respects, including the level of government involvement, level of development, growth rate, control of foreign exchange and allocation of resources. Although the Chinese government has implemented measures emphasizing the utilization of market forces for economic reform, the reduction of state ownership of productive assets, and the establishment of improved corporate governance in business enterprises, a substantial portion of productive assets in China is still owned by the government. In addition, the Chinese government continues to play a significant role in regulating industry development by imposing industrial policies. The Chinese government also exercises significant control over China’s economic growth through allocating resources, controlling payment of foreign currency-denominated obligations, setting monetary policy and providing preferential treatment to particular industries or companies.

While the Chinese economy has experienced significant growth over past decades, growth has been uneven, both geographically and among various sectors of the economy. In addition, the rate of growth has been slowing since 2012, and the impact of COVID-19 on the Chinese and global economies in 2020 is likely to be severe. In particular, National Bureau of Statistics of China reported a 6.8% drop in gross domestic product (GDP) for the first quarter of 2020 compared with the same period of 2019. Any adverse changes in economic conditions in China, in the policies of the Chinese government or in the laws and regulations in China could have a material adverse effect on the overall economic growth of China. Such developments could adversely affect our business and results of operations, lead to a reduction in demand for our services and adversely affect our competitive position. The Chinese government has implemented various measures to encourage economic growth and guide the allocation of resources. Some of these measures may benefit the overall Chinese economy, but may have a negative effect on us. For example, our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected by government control over capital investments or changes in tax regulations. In addition, in the past the Chinese government has implemented certain measures, including interest rate adjustment, to control the pace of economic growth. These measures may cause decreased economic activity in China, which may adversely affect our business and results of operations.

If relations between China and the United States deteriorate, our business, operating results and financial condition could be adversely affected.

At various times during recent years, the United States and China have had significant disagreements over monetary, economic, political and social issues, including currently in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, and future relations between these two countries may deteriorate. Changes in political conditions and changes in the state of China-U.S. relations are difficult to predict and could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition. In addition, because we operate our business primarily in China, any deterioration in political or trade relations might cause a public perception in the United States or elsewhere that might cause our products and services to become less attractive. We cannot predict what effect any changes in China-U.S. relations may have on our ability to access capital or effectively do business in China or the United States. Any unfavorable government policies on international trade, such as capital controls or tariffs, or the U.S. dollar payment and settlement system may affect the demand for our products, impact the competitive position of our products, prevent us from selling products in certain countries, or even our participation in the U.S. dollar payment and settlement system, which would materially and adversely affect our international operations, results of operations

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and financial condition. If any new tariffs, legislation and/or regulations are implemented, or if existing trade agreements are renegotiated or, in particular, if the U.S. government takes retaliatory trade actions due to the recent U.S.-China trade tension, such changes could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. Recently, the U.S. government escalated tensions between the U.S. and China by revoking Hong Kong’s special trading status and further sanctioning Chinese companies such as Huawei. Moreover, any political or trade controversies between the United States and China, whether or not directly related to our business, could cause investors to be unwilling to hold or buy the ADSs and consequently cause the trading price of the ADSs to decline.

We may be required to obtain and maintain permits and licenses to operate certain of our business operations under PRC law.

Telecommunications operators in China are subject to regulation by, and under the supervision of, the MIIT, the primary regulator of the telecommunications industry in China. Other PRC government authorities also take part in regulating the telecommunications industry in areas such as tariff policies and foreign investment. The MIIT, under the direction of the State Council, has been preparing a draft telecommunications law, which, once adopted, will become the fundamental telecommunications statute and the legal basis for telecommunications regulations in China. In 2000, the State Council promulgated a set of telecommunications regulations, or the Telecommunications Regulations, that apply in the interim period prior to the adoption of the telecommunications law.

Pursuant to the Catalog of Telecommunications Business of the PRC, or the Catalog, most recently amended in June 2019, providers of internet data center (IDC) services, including “internet-based resource collaboration” (IRC) services, are required to obtain an IDC license. As advised by Jia Yuan Law Firm, our PRC legal counsel, IRC services are defined quite broadly under the Catalog to include the provision “in a shared, collaborative manner” of “data storage, application deployment and other internet-based services that are readily accessible and easily modifiable on an on-demand basis.” We have recently inquired with competent PRC regulatory authorities for clarification of the requirement of IDC license and were informed that it generally applies to Infrastructure-as-a-Service, or IaaS, providers that engage in server hosting business or those that provide developers with internet-based development environments. It generally does not apply to providers of application development middleware, such as APIs and SDKs, or providers of data storage services where data is generated by individual users and is used for their personal use only.

We rely on third-party cloud-hosting providers such as AWS, Microsoft Azure and Tencent Cloud to provide cloud infrastructure for our platform. We do not engage in server hosting business ourselves. In addition, while our business involves the transmission of IoT data, such data is dynamic, as opposed to static, meaning that it continually changes after it is recorded in order to maintain its integrity. The data, such as smart device usage data, is generally generated by individual users for their personal use only. Based on the above, we do not believe we are required to obtain an IDC license. Additionally, as of the date of this prospectus, we have not received any notice of warning or been subject to any penalties or disciplinary action from competent government authorities for not having an IDC license for IoT PaaS. However, there are still significant uncertainties relating to the interpretation and implementation of the scope of IDC and/or IRC services under the Catalog. We cannot assure you that the PRC regulatory authorities will not ultimately take a view contrary to our opinion, or that the requirements in the Catalog will not be interpreted and applied in a manner that is inconsistent with our understanding as described above. If this were to occur, we may be required to obtain an IDC license, and if we are not able to obtain such license in a timely manner, or at all, we may be subject to penalties and fines or, in extreme cases, confiscation of the gains derived from the operations or even being required to discontinue the operations for which the IDC license is required.

The interpretation and application of existing PRC laws, regulations and policies and possible new laws, regulations or policies relating to the internet industry have created substantial uncertainties regarding the legality of existing and future foreign investments in, and the businesses and activities of, internet businesses in

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China, including our business. We cannot assure you that we have obtained all the permits or licenses required for conducting our business in China or will be able to maintain our existing licenses or obtain new ones. If the PRC government considers that we were operating without the proper approvals, licenses or permits or promulgates new laws and regulations that require additional approvals or licenses or imposes additional restrictions on the operation of any part of our business, it has the power, among other things, to levy fines, confiscate our income, revoke our business licenses, and require us to discontinue our relevant business or impose restrictions on the affected portion of our business. Any of these actions by the PRC government may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

The uncertainties in the PRC legal system could materially and adversely affect us.

The PRC legal system is a civil law system based on written statutes. Unlike the common law system, prior court decisions under the civil law system may be cited for reference but have limited precedential value.

In 1979, the PRC government began to promulgate a comprehensive system of laws and regulations governing economic matters in general. The overall effect of legislation over the past four decades has significantly enhanced the protections afforded to various forms of foreign investments in China. However, China has not developed a fully integrated legal system, and recently enacted laws and regulations may not sufficiently cover all aspects of economic activities in China. In particular, the PRC legal system is based on written statutes and prior court decisions have limited value as precedents. Since these laws and regulations are relatively new and the PRC legal system continues to rapidly evolve, the interpretations of many laws, regulations and rules may not be uniform and enforcement of these laws, regulations and rules involves uncertainties. These uncertainties may affect our judgment on the relevance of legal requirements and our ability to enforce our contractual rights or tort claims. In addition, the regulatory uncertainties may be exploited through unmerited or frivolous legal actions or threats in attempts to extract payments or benefits from us. Furthermore, the PRC legal system is based in part on government policies and internal rules, some of which are not published on a timely basis or at all and may have a retroactive effect. As a result, we may not be aware of our violation of any of these policies and rules until sometime after the violation. In addition, any administrative and court proceedings in China may be protracted, resulting in substantial costs and diversion of resources and management attention.

You may experience difficulties in effecting service of legal process, enforcing foreign judgments or bringing actions in China against us or our management named in the prospectus based on foreign laws.

We are a company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands, we conduct substantially all of our operations in China, and substantially all of our assets are located in China. In addition, some of our senior executive officers reside within China for a significant portion of the time and are PRC nationals. As a result, it may be difficult for our shareholders to effect service of process upon us or those persons inside China. In addition, China does not have treaties providing for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of judgments of courts with the Cayman Islands and many other countries and regions. Therefore, recognition and enforcement in China of judgments of a court in any of these non-PRC jurisdictions in relation to any matter not subject to a binding arbitration provision may be difficult or impossible.

Shareholder claims that are common in the United States, including securities law class actions and fraud claims, generally are difficult to pursue as a matter of law or practicality in China. For example, in China, there are significant legal and other obstacles to obtaining information needed for shareholder investigations or litigation outside China or otherwise with respect to foreign entities. Although the local authorities in China may establish a regulatory cooperation mechanism with the securities regulatory authorities of another country or region to implement cross-border supervision and administration, such regulatory cooperation with the securities regulatory authorities in the Unities States have not been efficient in the absence of mutual and practical cooperation mechanism. According to Article 177 of the PRC Securities Law which became effective in March 2020, no overseas securities regulator is allowed to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection

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activities within the territory of the PRC. Accordingly, without the consent of the competent PRC securities regulators and relevant authorities, no organization or individual may provide the documents and materials relating to securities business activities to overseas parties. See also “—Risks Relating to the ADSs and this Offering—You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited, because we are incorporated under Cayman Islands law” for risks associated with investing in us as a Cayman Islands company.

We may rely on dividends and other distributions on equity paid by our PRC subsidiaries to fund any cash and financing requirements we may have, and any limitation on the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to make payments to us could have a material and adverse effect on our ability to conduct our business.

We are a Cayman Islands holding company and we rely principally on dividends and other distributions on equity from our PRC subsidiaries for our cash requirements, including for services of any debt we may incur. Our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to distribute dividends is based upon their distributable earnings. Current PRC regulations permit our PRC subsidiaries to pay dividends to their respective shareholders only out of their accumulated profits, if any, determined in accordance with PRC accounting standards and regulations. In addition, each of our PRC subsidiaries are required to set aside at least 10% of its after-tax profits each year, if any, to fund a statutory reserve until such reserve reaches 50% of each of their registered capitals. These reserves are not distributable as cash dividends. If our PRC subsidiaries incur debt on their own behalf in the future, the instruments governing the debt may restrict their ability to pay dividends or make other payments to us. Any limitation on the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to distribute dividends or other payments to their respective shareholders could materially and adversely limit our ability to grow, make investments or acquisitions that could be beneficial to our businesses, pay dividends or otherwise fund and conduct our business.

To address the persistent capital outflow and the RMB’s depreciation against the U.S. dollar in the fourth quarter of 2016, the People’s Bank of China and the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, or SAFE, have implemented a series of capital control measures in the subsequent months, including stricter vetting procedures for China-based companies to remit foreign currency for overseas acquisitions, dividend payments and shareholder loan repayments. For instance, the Circular on Promoting the Reform of Foreign Exchange Management and Improving Authenticity and Compliance Review, or the SAFE Circular 3, issued on January 26, 2017, provides that the banks shall, when dealing with dividend remittance transactions from domestic enterprise to its offshore shareholders of more than US$50,000, review the relevant board resolutions, original tax filing form and audited financial statements of such domestic enterprise based on the principal of genuine transaction. The PRC government may continue to strengthen its capital controls and our PRC subsidiaries’ dividends and other distributions may be subject to tightened scrutiny in the future. Any limitation on the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to pay dividends or make other distributions to us could materially and adversely limit our ability to grow, make investments or acquisitions that could be beneficial to our business, pay dividends, or otherwise fund and conduct our business.

In addition, the Enterprise Income Tax Law and its implementation rules provide that a withholding tax at a rate of 10% will be applicable to dividends payable by Chinese companies to non-PRC-resident enterprises unless reduced under treaties or arrangements between the PRC central government and governments of other countries or regions where the non-PRC resident enterprises are tax resident. Pursuant to the tax agreement between Mainland China and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, the withholding tax rate in respect to the payment of dividends by a PRC enterprise to a Hong Kong enterprise may be reduced to 5% from a standard rate of 10% if the Hong Kong enterprise (i) directly holds at least 25% of the PRC enterprise, (ii) is a tax resident in Hong Kong and (iii) could be recognized as a beneficial owner of the dividend from PRC tax perspective. Under administrative guidance, a Hong Kong resident enterprise must meet the following conditions, among others, in order to apply the reduced withholding tax rate: (i) it must be a company; (ii) it must directly own the required percentage of equity interests and voting rights in the PRC resident enterprise; and (iii) it must have directly owned such required percentage in the PRC resident enterprise throughout the 12 months prior to receiving the dividends. Nonresident enterprises are not required to obtain pre-approval from the

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relevant tax authority in order to enjoy the reduced withholding tax. Instead, nonresident enterprises and their withholding agents may, by self-assessment and on confirmation that the prescribed criteria to enjoy the tax treaty benefits are met, directly apply the reduced withholding tax rate, and file necessary forms and supporting documents when performing tax filings, which will be subject to post-tax filing examinations by the relevant tax authorities. Accordingly, our Hong Kong subsidiary may be able to benefit from the 5% withholding tax rate for the dividends it receives from our PRC subsidiaries, if it satisfies the conditions prescribed under Guoshuihan [2009] 81 and other relevant tax rules and regulations. However, if the relevant tax authorities consider the transactions or arrangements we have are for the primary purpose of enjoying a favorable tax treatment, the relevant tax authorities may adjust the favorable withholding tax in the future. Accordingly, there is no assurance that the reduced 5% will apply to dividends received by our Hong Kong subsidiary from our PRC subsidiaries. This withholding tax will reduce the amount of dividends we may receive from our PRC subsidiaries.

The custodians or authorized users of our controlling non-tangible assets, including chops and seals, may fail to fulfill their responsibilities, or misappropriate or misuse these assets.

Under the PRC law, legal documents for corporate transactions, including agreements and contracts are executed using the chop or seal of the signing entity or with the signature of a legal representative whose designation is registered and filed with relevant PRC market regulation authorities.

In order to secure the use of our chops and seals, we have established internal control procedures and rules for using these chops and seals. In any event that the chops and seals are intended to be used, the responsible personnel will submit the application which will then be verified and approved by authorized employees in accordance with our internal control procedures and rules. In addition, in order to maintain the physical security of our chops, we generally have them stored in secured locations accessible only to authorized employees. Although we monitor such authorized employees, the procedures may not be sufficient to prevent all instances of abuse or negligence. There is a risk that our employees could abuse their authority, for example, by entering into a contract not approved by us or seeking to gain control of one of our subsidiaries or VIE. If any employee obtains, misuses or misappropriates our chops and seals or other controlling non-tangible assets for whatever reason, we could experience disruption to our normal business operations. We may have to take corporate or legal action, which could involve significant time and resources to resolve and divert management from our operations.

If the preferential tax treatments and government subsidies granted by PRC government become unavailable, our results of operation and financial condition may be adversely affected.

Our PRC subsidiaries are subject to the PRC corporate income tax at a standard rate of 25% on their taxable income, but in 2019 and 2020, preferential tax treatment was available to one of our PRC subsidiaries. Tuya Information was recognized as a “High-tech Enterprise” in November 2018, which allowed it to apply an income tax rate of 15% for the subsequent three years.

We cannot assure you that the PRC policies on preferential tax treatments will not change or that the current preferential tax treatments we enjoy or will be entitled to enjoy will not be canceled. Moreover, we cannot assure you that our PRC subsidiaries will be able to renew the same preferential tax treatments upon expiration. If any such change, cancelation or discontinuation of preferential tax treatment occurs, the relevant PRC subsidiaries will be subject to the PRC enterprise income tax, or EIT, at a rate of 25% on taxable income. As a result, the increase in our tax charge could materially and adversely affect our results of operations.

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PRC regulation of loans to and direct investment in PRC entities by offshore holding companies and governmental control of currency conversion may restrict or delay us from using the proceeds of this offering to make loans or additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries and making loans to our VIE or its subsidiaries, which could adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business.

We are an offshore holding company conducting our operations in China through our PRC subsidiaries and our VIE. We may make loans to our PRC subsidiaries and VIE subject to the approval from governmental authorities and limitation of amount, or we may make additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries in China.

Any loans to our PRC subsidiaries in China, which are treated as foreign-invested enterprises under PRC law, are subject to PRC regulations and foreign exchange loan registrations. For example, loans by us to our PRC subsidiaries in China to finance their activities cannot exceed statutory limits and must be registered with the local counterpart of SAFE. In addition, a foreign invested enterprise shall use its capital pursuant to the principle of authenticity and self-use within its business scope. The capital of a foreign invested enterprise shall not be used for the following purposes: (i) directly or indirectly used for payment beyond the business scope of the enterprises or the payment prohibited by relevant laws and regulations; (ii) directly or indirectly used for investment in securities investments other than banks’ principal-secured products unless otherwise provided by relevant laws and regulations; (iii) the granting of loans to non-affiliated enterprises, except where it is expressly permitted in the business license; and (iv) paying the expenses related to the purchase of real estate that is not for self-use (except for the foreign-invested real estate enterprises).

SAFE promulgated the Notice of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Reforming the Administration of Foreign Exchange Settlement of Capital of Foreign-invested Enterprises, or SAFE Circular 19, effective June 2015, in replacement of the Circular on the Relevant Operating Issues Concerning the Improvement of the Administration of the Payment and Settlement of Foreign Currency Capital of Foreign-Invested Enterprises, the Notice from the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Relevant Issues Concerning Strengthening the Administration of Foreign Exchange Businesses, and the Circular on Further Clarification and Regulation of the Issues Concerning the Administration of Certain Capital Account Foreign Exchange Businesses. Although SAFE Circular 19 allows RMB capital converted from foreign currency-denominated registered capital of a foreign-invested enterprise to be used for equity investments within China, it also reiterates the principle that RMB converted from the foreign currency-denominated capital of a foreign-invested company may not be directly or indirectly used for purposes beyond its business scope. Thus, it is unclear whether SAFE will permit such capital to be used for equity investments in China in actual practice. SAFE promulgated the Notice of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Reforming and Standardizing the Foreign Exchange Settlement Management Policy of Capital Account, or SAFE Circular 16, effective on June 9, 2016, which reiterates some of the rules set forth in SAFE Circular 19, but changes the prohibition against using RMB capital converted from foreign currency- denominated registered capital of a foreign-invested company to issue RMB entrusted loans to a prohibition against using such capital to issue loans to non-associated enterprises. Violations of SAFE Circular 19 and SAFE Circular 16 could result in administrative penalties. SAFE Circular 19 and SAFE Circular 16 may significantly limit our ability to transfer any foreign currency we hold, including the net proceeds from this offering, to our PRC subsidiaries, which may adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business in China.

On October 23, 2019, SAFE issued Notice by the State Administration of Foreign Exchange of Further Facilitating Cross-border Trade and Investment, or Circular 28, which took effect on the same day. Circular 28, subject to certain conditions, allows foreign-invested enterprises whose business scope does not include investment, or non-investment foreign-invested enterprises, to use their capital funds to make equity investments in China. Since Circular 28 was issued only recently, its interpretation and implementation in practice are still subject to substantial uncertainties.

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In light of the various requirements imposed by PRC regulations on loans to and direct investment in PRC entities by offshore holding companies, we cannot assure you that we will be able to complete the necessary government registrations or obtain the necessary government approvals on a timely basis, if at all, with respect to future loans to our PRC subsidiaries or VIE or future capital contributions by us to our wholly foreign-owned subsidiaries in China. As a result, uncertainties exist as to our ability to provide prompt financial support to our PRC subsidiaries or VIE when needed. If we fail to complete such registrations or obtain such approvals, our ability to use the proceeds we expect to receive from this offering and to capitalize or otherwise fund our PRC operations may be negatively affected, which could materially and adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business.

Governmental control of currency conversion may limit our ability to utilize our revenues effectively and affect the value of your investment.

The PRC government imposes controls on the convertibility of the Renminbi into foreign currencies and, in certain cases, the remittance of currency out of China. We receive substantially all of our revenues in Renminbi. Under our current corporate structure, our Cayman Islands holding company primarily relies on dividend payments from our PRC subsidiaries to fund any cash and financing requirements we may have. Under existing PRC foreign exchange regulations, payments of current account items, including profit distributions, interest payments and trade and service-related foreign exchange transactions, can be made in foreign currencies without prior approval of SAFE by complying with certain procedural requirements. Specifically, under the existing exchange restrictions, without prior approval of SAFE, cash generated from the operations of our PRC subsidiaries in China may be used to pay dividends to our company. However, approval from or registration with appropriate government authorities is required where Renminbi is to be converted into foreign currency and remitted out of China to pay capital expenses such as the repayment of loans denominated in foreign currencies. As a result, we need to obtain SAFE approval to use cash generated from the operations of our PRC subsidiaries and VIE to pay off their respective debt in a currency other than Renminbi owed to entities outside China, or to make other capital expenditure payments outside China in a currency other than Renminbi. The PRC government may at its discretion restrict access to foreign currencies for current account transactions in the future. If the foreign exchange control system prevents us from obtaining sufficient foreign currencies to satisfy our foreign currency demands, we may not be able to pay dividends in foreign currencies to our shareholders, including holders of the ADSs.

The approval of the China Securities Regulatory Commission, or the CSRC, may be required in connection with this offering under a PRC regulation.

On August 8, 2006, six PRC regulatory agencies, including the MOFCOM, the State-Owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission, or the SASAC, the SAT, the State Administration for Industry and Commerce, or the SAIC, the CSRC, and the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, or the SAFE, jointly adopted the Regulations on Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, or the M&A Rules, which came into effect on September 8, 2006 and were amended on June 22, 2009. The M&A Rules include, among other things, provisions that purport to require that an offshore special purpose vehicle that is controlled by PRC domestic companies or individuals and that has been formed for the purpose of an overseas listing of securities through acquisitions of PRC domestic companies or assets to obtain the approval of the CSRC prior to the listing and trading of such special purpose vehicle’s securities on an overseas stock exchange. On September 21, 2006, the CSRC published on its official website procedures regarding its approval of overseas listings by special purpose vehicles. However, substantial uncertainty remains regarding the scope and applicability of the M&A Rules to offshore special purpose vehicles.

While the application of the M&A Rules remains unclear, we believe, based on the advice of our PRC legal counsel, Jia Yuan Law Offices, that the CSRC approval is not required in the context of this offering because (1) our WFOE was incorporated as a foreign-invested enterprise by means of foreign direct investments rather than by merger with or acquisition of any PRC domestic companies as defined under the M&A Rules and

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(2) there is no statutory provision that clearly classifies the contractual arrangement among our WFOE, our VIE and our VIE’s shareholders as transactions regulated by the M&A Rules. There can be no assurance that the relevant PRC government agencies, including the CSRC, would reach the same conclusion as our PRC legal counsel. If the CSRC or other PRC regulatory body subsequently determines that we need to obtain the CSRC’s approval for this offering or if the CSRC or any other PRC government authorities promulgates any interpretation or implements rules that would require us to obtain CSRC or other governmental approvals for this offering, we may face adverse actions or sanctions by the CSRC or other PRC regulatory agencies. In any such event, these regulatory agencies may impose fines and penalties on our operations in China, limit our operating privileges in China, delay or restrict the repatriation of the proceeds from this offering into the PRC or take other actions that could adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition, as well as our ability to complete this offering. The CSRC or other PRC regulatory agencies may also take actions requiring us, or making it advisable for us, to halt this offering before settlement and delivery of the ADSs offered by this prospectus. Consequently, if you engage in market trading or other activities in anticipation of and prior to settlement and delivery, you do so at the risk that such settlement and delivery may not occur. In addition, if the CSRC or other regulatory agencies later promulgate new rules or explanations requiring us to obtain their approvals for this offering, we may be unable to obtain waivers of such approval requirements. Any uncertainties or negative publicity regarding such approval requirements could materially and adversely affect the trading price of the ADSs.

Certain PRC regulations may make it more difficult for us to pursue growth through acquisitions.

Among other things, the Regulations on Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, or the M&A Rules, adopted by six PRC regulatory agencies in 2006 and amended in 2009, established additional procedures and requirements that could make merger and acquisition activities by foreign investors more time-consuming and complex. Such regulation requires, among other things, that MOFCOM be notified in advance of any change of control transaction in which a foreign investor takes control of a PRC domestic enterprise, if (i) any important industry is concerned, (ii) such transaction involves factors that have or may have impact on the national economic security, or (iii) such transaction will lead to a change in control of a domestic enterprise which holds a famous trademark or PRC time-honored brand. Moreover, the Anti-Monopoly Law promulgated by the Standing Committee of the NPC which became effective in 2008 requires that transactions which are deemed concentrations and involve parties with specified turnover thresholds must be cleared by the relevant anti-monopoly authority before they can be completed. In addition, PRC national security review rules which became effective in September 2011 require acquisitions by foreign investors of PRC companies engaged in military related or certain other industries that are crucial to national security be subject to security review before consummation of any such acquisition. We may pursue potential strategic acquisitions that are complementary to our business and operations. Complying with the requirements of these regulations to complete such transactions could be time-consuming, and any required approval processes, including obtaining approval or clearance from the competent governmental authority, may delay or inhibit our ability to complete such transactions, which could affect our ability to expand our business or maintain our market share.

Failure to make adequate contributions to various employee benefit plans as required by PRC regulations may subject us to penalties.

We are required under PRC laws and regulations to participate in various government sponsored employee benefit plans, including certain social insurance, housing funds and other welfare-oriented payment obligations, and contribute to the plans in amounts equal to certain percentages of salaries, including bonuses and allowances, of our employees up to a maximum amount specified by the local government from time to time at locations where we operate our businesses. The requirement of employee benefit plans has not been implemented consistently by the local governments in China given the different levels of economic development in different locations. If we fail to make adequate payments in the future, we may be required to make up the contributions for these plans in the amount of 110% of the amount in the preceding month. If we fail to make or supplement contributions of social security premiums within the stipulated period, the social security premiums collection

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agency may enquire into the deposit accounts of the employer with banks and other financial institutions. In an extreme situation, where we failed to contribute social security premiums in full amount and do not provide guarantee, the social security premiums collection agency may apply to a Chinese court for seizure, foreclosure or auction of our properties of value equivalent to the amount of social security premiums payable, and the proceeds from auction shall be used for contribution of social security premiums. If we are subject to deposit, seizure, foreclosure or auction in relation to the underpaid employee benefits, our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.

PRC regulations relating to the establishment of offshore special purpose companies by PRC residents may subject our PRC resident beneficial owners or our PRC subsidiaries to liability or penalties, limit our ability to inject capital into our PRC subsidiaries, limit our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to increase their registered capital or distribute profits to us, or may otherwise adversely affect us.

In July 2014, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Relevant Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Control on Domestic Residents’ Offshore Investment and Financing and Roundtrip Investment Through Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 37, to replace the Notice on Relevant Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Residents’ Financing and Roundtrip Investment Through Offshore Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 75, which ceased to be effective upon the promulgation of SAFE Circular 37. SAFE Circular 37 requires PRC residents (including PRC individuals and PRC corporate entities) to register with SAFE or its local branches in connection with their direct or indirect offshore investment activities. SAFE Circular 37 is applicable to our shareholders who are PRC residents and may be applicable to any offshore acquisitions that we make in the future.

SAFE Circular 37 requires registration with, and approval from, Chinese government authorities in connection with direct or indirect control of an offshore entity by PRC residents. The term “control” under SAFE Circular 37 is broadly defined as the operation rights, beneficiary rights or decision- making rights acquired by PRC residents in the offshore special purpose vehicles, or SPVs, by means of acquisition, trust, proxy, voting rights, repurchase, convertible bonds or other arrangements. In addition, any PRC resident who is a direct or indirect shareholder of an SPV is required to update its filed registration with the local branch of SAFE with respect to that SPV, to reflect any material change. On February 13, 2015, the SAFE promulgated a Notice on Further Simplifying and Improving Foreign Exchange Administration Policy on Direct Investment, or SAFE Notice 13, which became effective on June 1, 2015. Under SAFE Notice 13, applications for foreign exchange registration of inbound foreign direct investments and outbound overseas direct investments, including those required under SAFE Circular 37, will be filed with qualified banks instead of SAFE. The qualified banks will directly examine the applications and accept registrations under the supervision of SAFE.

These regulations may have a significant impact on our present and future structuring and investment. We intend to structure and execute our future offshore acquisitions in a manner consistent with these regulations and any other relevant legislation. However, because it is presently uncertain how the SAFE regulations and any future legislation concerning offshore or cross-border transactions will be interpreted and implemented by the relevant government authorities in connection with our future offshore financings or acquisitions, we cannot provide any assurances that we will be able to comply with, qualify under, or obtain any approvals required by the regulations or other legislation. Furthermore, we cannot assure you that any PRC shareholders of our company or any PRC company into which we invest will be able to comply with those requirements. Any failure or inability by such individuals or entities to comply with SAFE regulations may subject us to fines or legal sanctions, such as restrictions on our cross-border investment activities or our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to distribute dividends to, or obtain foreign exchange-denominated loans from, our company or prevent us from making distributions or paying dividends. As a result, our business operations and our ability to make distributions to you could be materially and adversely affected.

Furthermore, as these foreign exchange regulations are still relatively new and their interpretation and implementation has been constantly evolving, it is unclear how these regulations, and any future regulation

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concerning offshore or cross-border transactions, will be interpreted, amended and implemented by the relevant government authorities. For example, we may be subject to a more stringent review and approval process with respect to our foreign exchange activities, such as remittance of dividends and foreign-currency-denominated borrowings, which may adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. In addition, if we decide to acquire a PRC domestic company, we cannot assure you that we or the owners of such company, as the case may be, will be able to obtain the necessary approvals or complete the necessary filings and registrations required by the foreign exchange regulations. This may restrict our ability to implement our acquisition strategy and could adversely affect our business and prospects.

Any failure to comply with PRC regulations regarding the registration requirements for employee stock incentive plans may subject the PRC plan participants or us to fines and other legal or administrative sanctions.

In February 2012, SAFE promulgated the Notices on Issues Concerning the Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in Stock Incentive Plan of Overseas Publicly Listed Company, replacing earlier rules promulgated in 2007. Pursuant to these rules, PRC citizens and non-PRC citizens who reside in China for a continuous period of not less than one year who participate in any stock incentive plan of an overseas publicly listed company, subject to a few exceptions, are required to register with SAFE through a domestic qualified agent, which could be the PRC subsidiaries of such overseas-listed company, and complete certain other procedures. In addition, an overseas-entrusted institution must be retained to handle matters in connection with the exercise or sale of stock options and the purchase or sale of shares and interests. In addition, SAFE Circular 37 stipulates that PRC residents who participate in a share incentive plan of an overseas non-publicly-listed special purpose company may register with SAFE or its local branches before they obtain the incentive shares or exercise the share options. We and our executive officers and other employees who are PRC citizens or who reside in the PRC for a continuous period of not less than one year and who have been or will be granted incentive shares or options are or will be subject to these regulations. Failure to complete the SAFE registrations may subject them to fines and legal sanctions, and there may be additional restrictions on the ability of them to exercise their stock options or remit proceeds gained from sale of their stock into the PRC. We also face regulatory uncertainties that could restrict our ability to adopt additional incentive plans for our directors, executive officers and employees under PRC law. See “Regulation—Regulation Related to Stock Incentive Plans.”

If we are classified as a PRC resident enterprise for PRC enterprise income tax purposes, such classification could result in unfavorable tax consequences to us and our non-PRC shareholders and ADS holders.

Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and its implementation rules, an enterprise established outside of the PRC with its “de facto management body” within the PRC is considered a “resident enterprise” and will be subject to the enterprise income tax on its global income at the rate of 25%. The implementation rules define the term “de facto management body” as the body that exercises full and substantial control and overall management over the business, productions, personnel, accounts and properties of an enterprise. In 2009, the State Administration of Taxation, or SAT, issued a circular, known as SAT Circular 82, which provides certain specific criteria for determining whether the “de facto management body” of a PRC-controlled enterprise that is incorporated offshore is located in China. Although this circular only applies to offshore enterprises controlled by PRC enterprises or PRC enterprise groups, not those controlled by PRC individuals or foreigners, the criteria set forth in the circular may reflect the SAT’s general position on how the “de facto management body” text should be applied in determining the tax resident status of all offshore enterprises. According to SAT Circular 82, an offshore incorporated enterprise controlled by a PRC enterprise or a PRC enterprise group will be regarded as a PRC tax resident by virtue of having its “de facto management body” in China, and will be subject to PRC enterprise income tax on its global income only if all of the following conditions are met: (i) the primary location of the day-to-day operational management is in the PRC; (ii) decisions relating to the enterprise’s financial and human resource matters are made or are subject to approval by organizations or personnel in the PRC; (iii) the

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enterprise’s primary assets, accounting books and records, company seals, and board and shareholder resolutions are located or maintained in the PRC; and (iv) at least 50% of voting board members or senior executives habitually reside in the PRC.

We believe our company is not a PRC resident enterprise for PRC tax purposes. However, the tax resident status of an enterprise is subject to determination by the PRC tax authorities and uncertainties remain with respect to the interpretation of the term “de facto management body.” If the PRC tax authorities determine that our company or any of our offshore subsidiaries is a PRC resident enterprise for enterprise income tax purposes, our company or the relevant offshore subsidiaries will be subject to PRC enterprise income on its worldwide income at the rate of 25%. Furthermore, if we are treated as a PRC tax resident enterprise, we will be required to withhold a 10% tax from dividends we pay to our shareholders that are non- resident enterprises, including the holders of the ADSs. In addition, non-resident enterprise shareholders (including our ADS holders) may be subject to PRC tax at a rate of 10% on gains realized on the sale or other disposition of ADSs or ordinary shares, if such gain is treated as derived from a PRC source. Furthermore, if we are deemed a PRC resident enterprise, dividends paid to our non-PRC individual shareholders (including our ADS holders) and any gain realized on the transfer of ADSs or ordinary shares by such shareholders may be subject to PRC tax at a rate of 20% (which, in the case of dividends, may be withheld at source by us). These rates may be reduced by an applicable tax treaty, but it is unclear whether our non-PRC shareholders would, in practice, be able to obtain the benefits of any tax treaties between their country of tax residence and the PRC in the event that we are treated as a PRC resident enterprise. Any such tax may reduce the returns on your investment in the ADSs or ordinary shares.

We face uncertainty with respect to indirect transfers of equity interests in PRC resident enterprises by their non-PRC resident companies.

On February 3, 2015, the SAT issued the Public Notice Regarding Certain Corporate Income Tax Matters on Indirect Transfer of Properties by Non- Tax Resident Enterprises, or SAT Bulletin 7, which came into effect on February 3, 2015, but will also apply to cases where their PRC tax treatments are not yet concluded. SAT Bulletin 7 redefines the applicable scope to expand the subject of the indirect share transfers to China taxable assets which includes equity investments in PRC resident enterprises, assets of Chinese establishment and immoveable properties in China. In addition, SAT Bulletin 7 has introduced safe harbors for internal group restructurings and the purchase and sale of equity through a public securities market. SAT Bulletin 7 also brings challenges to both foreign transferor and transferee (or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer) of taxable assets.

On October 17, 2017, the SAT issued the Announcement of the State Administration of Taxation on Issues Concerning the Withholding of Non- resident Enterprise Income Tax at Source, or SAT Bulletin 37, which came into effect on December 1, 2017. The SAT Bulletin 37 further clarifies the practice and procedure of the withholding of non-resident enterprise income tax.

Where a non-resident enterprise transfers taxable assets in China indirectly by disposing of the equity interests of an overseas holding company, which is an Indirect Transfer, the non-resident enterprise as either transferor or transferee, or the PRC entity whose equity is transferred, may report such Indirect Transfer to the relevant tax authority. Using a “substance over form” principle, the PRC tax authority may disregard the existence of the overseas holding company if it lacks a reasonable commercial purpose and was established for the purpose of reducing, avoiding or deferring PRC tax. As a result, gains derived from such Indirect Transfer may be subject to PRC enterprise income tax, and the transferee or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer is obligated to withhold the applicable taxes, currently at a rate of 10% for the transfer of equity interests in a PRC resident enterprise. Both the transferor and the transferee may be subject to penalties under PRC tax laws if the transferee fails to withhold the taxes and the transferor fails to pay the taxes.

We face uncertainties as to the reporting and other implications of certain past and future transactions where PRC taxable assets are involved, such as offshore restructuring, sale of the shares in our offshore subsidiaries and

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investments. Our company may be subject to filing obligations or taxed if our company is transferor in such transactions, and may be subject to withholding obligations if our company is transferee in such transactions, under SAT Bulletin 7 and/or SAT Bulletin 37. For transfer of shares in our company by investors who are non-PRC resident enterprises, our PRC subsidiaries may be requested to assist in the filing under SAT Bulletin 7 and/or SAT Bulletin 37. As a result, we may be required to expend valuable resources to comply with SAT Bulletin 7 and/or SAT Bulletin 37 or to request the relevant transferors from whom we purchase taxable assets to comply with these circulars, or to establish that our company should not be taxed under these circulars, which may have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

Regulation and censorship of information disseminated over the internet in China may adversely affect our business and reputation and subject us to liability for information displayed on our website.

China has enacted laws and regulations governing Internet access and the distribution of products, services, news, information, audio-video programs and other content through the Internet. In the past, the PRC government has prohibited the distribution of information through the internet that it deems to be in violation of PRC laws and regulations. If any of the information offered on our platform was deemed by the PRC government to violate any content restrictions, we would not be able to continue to display such content and could become subject to penalties, including confiscation of income, fines, suspension of business and revocation of required licenses, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The audit report included in this prospectus is prepared by an accounting firm that is not inspected by the PCAOB and, as such, our investors are deprived of the benefits of such inspection.

Our audit report included in this prospectus is prepared by an accounting firm that is not inspected by the PCAOB. Companies that are publicly traded in the United States must have their financial statements audited by an independent public accounting firm registered with the PCAOB. This lack of the PCAOB inspections in China prevents the PCAOB from fully evaluating audits and quality control procedures of our auditor. As a result, we and investors in our ADSs are deprived of the benefits of such PCAOB inspections, which could cause investors in our ADSs to lose confidence in our audit procedures and the quality of our financial statements.

The continued impasse on the ability of the PCAOB to inspect or investigate PCAOB-registered accounting firms in China and U.S. regulatory and legislative focus, including recent enactment of the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, may (i) adversely affect the market price of our ADSs and (ii) eventually require us to delist our securities from the U.S. markets.

Over the past decade, the U.S. securities regulators (SEC and PCAOB) and their Chinese counterparts (the China Securities Regulatory Commission, or CSRC, and the PRC Ministry of Finance) have been in an impasse over the PCAOB’s ability to inspect or investigate the audit work of accounting firms that audit the financial statements of China-based companies. Under U.S. securities laws, publicly listed companies are required to have their financial statements audited by independent public accounting firms registered with the PCAOB. Under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the PCAOB is required to inspect the PCAOB-registered accounting firms to assess compliance with auditing standards and bring enforcement actions for non-compliance with such standards. If requested by the PCAOB or the SEC, PCAOB-registered accounting firms are required to provide the audit work papers and other related information for inspection. However, the PCAOB currently does not have free access to inspect the work of auditors of China-based companies, including our company. Article 177 of the revised PRC Securities Law prohibits, without the approval of the securities regulatory authority in China, (i) foreign securities regulators from engaging in any inspection activities within China and (ii) anyone from providing any documents or materials relating to capital markets activities to foreign parties.

To seek a framework for cooperation, in May 2013, the PCAOB entered into a Memorandum of Understanding on Enforcement Cooperation, or the MOU, with the CSRC and the PRC Ministry of Finance, which establishes a cooperative framework among the parties for the production and exchange of audit

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documents relevant to investigations undertaken by the PCAOB, the CSRC or the PRC Ministry of Finance in the United States and the PRC, respectively. Despite the MOU, the Chairmen of each of the SEC and the PCAOB issued a joint statement in December 2018 alleging continuing, significant issues relating to the ability of the PCAOB to inspect the audit work papers and practices of PCAOB-registered accounting firms in China with respect to their audit work of U.S.-listed companies with operations in China. The SEC and the PCAOB reiterated these allegations and highlighted such risks in another joint statement in April 2020.

As part of the continued regulatory scrutiny in the United States on access to audit and other information currently protected by laws in China, in December 2020, the U.S. Congress passed the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, or the HFCAA, which had passed the U.S. Senate in May 2020. The HFCAA was signed into law by the President in December 2020. The HFCAA would amend the Sarbanes-Oxley Act to require the SEC to determine each company that is required to file periodic reports with the SEC that has retained an accounting firm: (i) that is located in a foreign jurisdiction and (ii) whom the PCAOB is unable to inspect or investigate due to the position taken by an authority in the foreign jurisdiction (as determined by the PCAOB). If the SEC determines that the PCAOB has been unable to inspect or investigate such accounting firm for three consecutive years, it will prohibit such company from trading its securities on a U.S. securities exchange or in any “over-the-counter” exchange. It is unclear when the SEC will issue the implementation rules of the HFCAA and when such rules will become effective.

In addition, in August 2020, the President’s Working Group on Financial Markets, or the PWG, released a report recommending that the SEC take certain steps, including adopting enhanced listing standards on U.S. stock exchanges, to protect U.S. investors from the perceived risks of Chinese companies. This would require, as a condition to initial and continued listing on a U.S. stock exchange, PCAOB access to work papers of the principal audit firm for the audit of the listed company. Companies unable to satisfy this standard as a result of governmental restrictions may satisfy this standard by providing a co-audit from an audit firm with comparable resources and experience where the PCAOB determines it has sufficient access to audit work papers and practices to conduct an appropriate inspection of the co-audit firm. There is currently no legal framework under which such a co-audit may be legally conducted for companies based in China. The proposed new listing standards would allow for a transition period until January 1, 2022 for listed companies, but would apply immediately to ban new listings once the necessary rulemakings and standard-setting are effective.

It is unclear if and when the SEC will make rules to implement the recommendations proposed in the PWG report, especially in light of its rulemaking pursuant to the HFCAA. Upon the effectiveness of the SEC implementation rules relating to the HFCAA (and PWG report, if applicable), we will be subject to the requirement to have our financial statements audited by an accounting firm for which the PCAOB can inspect and investigate. Failure to comply with such requirements could ultimately result in a de-listing of the ADSs from NYSE. In addition, the uncertainty around the HFCAA and PWG report could adversely affect the market price of our ADSs.

Risks Related to the ADSs and this Offering

An active trading market for our ordinary shares or the ADSs may not develop and the trading price for the ADSs may fluctuate significantly.

We have submitted an application to list the ADSs on the NYSE. Prior to the completion of this offering, there has been no public market for the ADSs or our ordinary shares, and we cannot assure you that a liquid public market for the ADSs will develop. If an active public market for the ADSs does not develop following the completion of this offering, the market price and liquidity of the ADSs may be materially and adversely affected. The initial public offering price for the ADSs will be determined by negotiation between us and the underwriters based upon several factors, and the trading price of the ADSs after this offering could decline below the initial public offering price. As a result, investors in our securities may experience a significant decrease in the value of their ADSs.

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A number of investors, including certain existing shareholders and their affiliates and third-party investors, have indicated their interest in subscribing for an aggregate of at least US$500 million of the ADSs being offered in this offering, including (i) US$100 million from our existing shareholder Tencent, (ii) at least US$100 million from Gaoling Fund, L.P. and YHG Investment, L.P., affiliates of our existing shareholder, or collectively Hillhouse Capital, (iii) an aggregate of at least US$300 million from Canada Pension Plan Investment Board, one or more funds affiliated with Dragoneer Investment Group, LLC, GIC Private Limited, funds affiliated with Tiger Global Management, LLC, and/or their affiliates. The subscriptions for ADSs are at the initial public offering price and on the same terms as the other ADSs being offered in this offering. Such subscriptions may reduce the available public float for the ADSs, which may consequently reduce the liquidity of the ADSs relative to what it would have been had these ADSs been subscribed by the public.

You must rely on the judgment of our management as to the use of the net proceeds from this offering, and such use may not produce income or increase our ADS price.

We have not determined a specific use for a portion of the net proceeds of this offering, and our management will have considerable discretion in the application of the proceeds received by us. You will not have the opportunity, as part of your investment decision, to assess whether proceeds are being used appropriately. The proceeds may be used for corporate purposes that do not improve our efforts to achieve or maintain profitability or increase our ADS price. The proceeds from this offering may be placed in investments that do not produce income or that lose value.

The trading price of the ADSs is likely to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors.

The trading price of the ADSs could fluctuate widely due to factors beyond our control. This may happen because of broad market and industry factors, including the performance and fluctuation of the market prices of other companies with business operations located mainly in China that have listed their securities in the United States. Furthermore, the stock market in general has experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of companies like us. These broad market and industry factors may materially reduce the market price of the ADSs, regardless of our operating performance. In addition to market and industry factors, the price and trading volume for the ADSs may be highly volatile for factors specific to our own operations, including but not limited to the following:

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Any of these factors may result in large and sudden changes in the volume and price at which the ADSs will trade.

Because our initial public offering price is substantially higher than our net tangible book value per share, you will experience immediate and substantial dilution.

If you purchase ADSs in this offering, you will pay more for your ADSs than the amount paid by our existing shareholders for their ordinary shares on a per ADS basis. As a result, you will experience immediate and substantial dilution of approximately US$16.46 per ADS, based on an assumed initial public offering price of US$18.50 per ADS, the midpoint of the estimated public offering price range shown on the front cover of this prospectus. See “Dilution” for a more complete description of how the value of your investment in the ADSs will be diluted upon completion of this offering.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or if they adversely change their recommendations regarding the ADSs, the market price for the ADSs and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for the ADSs depends in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If research analysts do not establish and maintain adequate research coverage or if one or more of the analysts who covers us downgrades the ADSs or publishes inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the market price for the ADSs would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which, in turn, could cause the market price or trading volume for the ADSs to decline.

Substantial future sales or perceived potential sales of the ADSs in the public market could cause the price of the ADSs to decline.

Sales of the ADSs in the public market after this offering, or the perception that these sales could occur, could cause the market price of the ADSs to decline. All ADSs sold in this offering will be freely transferable without restriction or additional registration under the Securities Act. The remaining ordinary shares issued and outstanding after this offering will be available for sale, upon the expiration of the 180-day lock-up period (or the one-year lock-up period for Tencent Mobility Limited, one of our shareholders) beginning from the date of this prospectus, subject to volume and other restrictions as applicable provided in Rules 144 and 701 under the Securities Act. Any or all of these shares may be released prior to the expiration of the lock-up period at the discretion of the representatives of the underwriters of this offering. To the extent shares are released before the expiration of the lock-up period and sold into the market, the market price of the ADSs could decline.

Techniques employed by short sellers may drive down the market price of the ADSs.

Short selling is the practice of selling securities that the seller does not own but rather has borrowed from a third party with the intention of buying identical securities back at a later date to return to the lender. The short seller hopes to profit from a decline in the value of the securities between the sale of the borrowed securities and the purchase of the replacement shares, as the short seller expects to pay less in that purchase than it received in the sale. As it is in the short seller’s interest for the price of the security to decline, many short sellers publish, or arrange for the publication of, negative opinions regarding the relevant issuer and its business prospects in order to create negative market momentum and generate profits for themselves after selling a security short. These short attacks have, in the past, led to selling of shares in the market.

Public companies that have substantially all of their operations in China have been the subject of short selling. Much of the scrutiny and negative publicity has centered on allegations of a lack of effective internal control over financial reporting resulting in financial and accounting irregularities and mistakes, inadequate corporate governance policies or a lack of adherence thereto and, in many cases, allegations of fraud. As a result, many of these companies are now conducting internal and external investigations into the allegations and, in the interim, are subject to shareholder lawsuits and/or enforcement actions by the SEC or other U.S. authorities.

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It is not clear what effect such negative publicity could have on us. If we were to become the subject of any unfavorable allegations, whether such allegations are proven to be true or untrue, we could have to expend a significant amount of resources to investigate such allegations and/or defend ourselves. While we would strongly defend against any such short seller attacks, we may be constrained in the manner in which we can proceed against the relevant short seller by principles of freedom of speech, applicable state law or issues of commercial confidentiality. Such a situation could be costly and time-consuming, and could distract our management from growing our business. Even if such allegations are ultimately proven to be groundless, allegations against us could severely impact our business operations, and any investment in the ADSs could be greatly reduced or even rendered worthless.

Because we do not expect to pay dividends in the foreseeable future after this offering, you must rely on a price appreciation of the ADSs for a return on your investment.

We currently intend to retain most, if not all, of our available funds and any future earnings to fund the development and growth of our business. As a result, we do not expect to pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Therefore, you should not rely on an investment in the ADSs as a source for any future dividend income.

Our board of directors has complete discretion as to whether to distribute dividends, subject to certain requirements of Cayman Islands law. In addition, our shareholders may by ordinary resolution declare a dividend, but no dividend may exceed the amount recommended by our directors. Under Cayman Islands law, a Cayman Islands company may pay a dividend out of either profit or share premium account, provided that in no circumstances may a dividend be paid if this would result in the company being unable to pay its debts as they fall due in the ordinary course of business. Even if our board of directors decides to declare and pay dividends, the timing, amount and form of future dividends, if any, will depend on our future results of operations and cash flow, our capital requirements and surplus, the amount of distributions, if any, received by us from our subsidiaries, our financial condition, contractual restrictions and other factors deemed relevant by our board of directors. Accordingly, the return on your investment in the ADSs will likely depend entirely upon any future price appreciation of the ADSs. There is no guarantee that the ADSs will appreciate in value after this offering or even maintain the price at which you purchased the ADSs. You may not realize a return on your investment in the ADSs and you may even lose your entire investment in the ADSs.

You may not have the same voting rights as the holders of our Class A ordinary shares and may not be able to exercise your right to direct how the Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs are voted.

Holders of the ADSs do not have the same rights as our registered shareholders. As a holder of ADSs, you will not have any direct right to attend general meetings of our shareholders or to cast any votes at such meetings. You will only be able to exercise the voting rights that are carried by the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs indirectly by giving voting instructions to the depositary in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you may vote only by giving voting instructions to the depositary. If we instruct the depositary to ask for your instructions, then upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will try, as far as practicable, to vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in accordance with your instructions. If we do not instruct the depositary to ask for your instructions, the depositary may still vote in accordance with instructions you give, but it is not required to do so. You will not be able to directly exercise your right to vote with respect to the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs unless you withdraw the shares and become the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date for the general meeting. Under our post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association that will become effective immediately prior to the completion of this offering, the minimum notice period required to be given by our company to our registered shareholders for convening a general meeting is seven business days.

When a general meeting is convened, you may not receive sufficient advance notice of the meeting to surrender your ADSs for the purpose of withdrawal of the Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs and

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become the registered holder of such shares to allow you to vote directly with respect to any specific matter or resolution to be considered and voted upon at the general meeting. In addition, under our post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association that will become effective immediately prior to completion of this offering, for the purposes of determining those shareholders who are entitled to attend and vote at any general meeting, our directors may close our register of members and fix in advance a record date for such meeting, and such closure of our register of members or the setting of such a record date may prevent you from surrendering your ADS for the purpose of withdrawing the Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs and becoming the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date, so that you would not be able to attend the general meeting or to vote directly. If we ask for your instructions, the depositary will notify you of the upcoming vote and will arrange to deliver our voting materials to you. We have agreed to give the depositary at least 40 days’ prior notice of shareholder meetings. Nevertheless, we cannot assure you that you will receive the voting materials in time to ensure that you can instruct the depositary to vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs. In addition, the depositary and its agents are not responsible for failing to carry out voting instructions or for their manner of carrying out your voting instructions. This means that you may not be able to exercise your right to direct how the Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs are voted and you may have no legal remedy if the Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs are not voted as you requested.

You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited, because we are incorporated under Cayman Islands law.

We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our memorandum and articles of association, the Companies Act (2020 Revision) of the Cayman Islands and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against our directors, actions by our minority shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England and Wales, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands have a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. Some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, Cayman Islands companies may not have standing to initiate a shareholder derivative action in a federal court of the United States. Moreover, while under Delaware law, controlling shareholders owe fiduciary duties to the companies they control and their minority shareholders, under Cayman Islands law, our controlling shareholders do not owe any such fiduciary duties to our company or to our minority shareholders. Accordingly, our controlling shareholders may exercise their powers as shareholders, including the exercise of voting rights in respect of their shares, in such manner as they think fit.

Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like us have no general rights under Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records (other than the memorandum and articles of association, the register of mortgages and charges and any special resolutions passed by shareholders) or to obtain copies of lists of shareholders of these companies. Our directors have discretion under our articles of association to determine whether or not, and under what conditions, our corporate records may be inspected by our shareholders, but are not obliged to make them available to our shareholders. This may make it more difficult for you to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest.

Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, differ significantly from requirements for companies incorporated in other jurisdictions such as the United States. If we choose to follow home country practice, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would under rules and regulations applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.

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As a result of all of the above, our public shareholders may have more difficulty in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by our management, members of the board of directors or controlling shareholders than they would as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States. For a discussion of significant differences between the provisions of the Companies Act of the Cayman Islands and the laws applicable to companies incorporated in the United States and their shareholders, see “Description of Share Capital—Differences in Corporate Law.”

It may be difficult for overseas regulators to conduct investigations or collect evidence within China.

Shareholder claims or regulatory investigation that are common in the United States generally are difficult to pursue as a matter of law or practicality in China. For example, in China, there are significant legal and other obstacles to providing information needed for regulatory investigations or litigation initiated outside China. Although the authorities in China may establish a regulatory cooperation mechanism with the securities regulatory authorities of another country or region to implement cross-border supervision and administration, such cooperation with the securities regulatory authorities in the Unities States may not be efficient in the absence of mutual and practical cooperation mechanism. Furthermore, according to Article 177 of the PRC Securities Law, or Article 177, which became effective in March 2020, no overseas securities regulator is allowed to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities within the territory of the PRC. While detailed interpretation of or implementation rules under Article 177 have yet to be promulgated, the inability for an overseas securities regulator to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities within China may further increase difficulties faced by you in protecting your interests.

Certain judgments obtained against us by our shareholders may not be enforceable.

We are an exempted company limited by shares incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands and substantially all of our assets are located outside of the United States. Substantially all of our current operations are conducted in China. In addition, some of our current directors and officers are nationals and residents of countries other than the United States. Most of the assets of these persons are located outside the United States. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible for you to bring an action against us or against these individuals in the United States in the event that you believe that your rights have been infringed under the U.S. federal securities laws or otherwise. Even if you are successful in bringing an action of this kind, the laws of the Cayman Islands and of China may render you unable to enforce a judgment against our assets or the assets of our directors and officers. For more information regarding the relevant laws of the Cayman Islands and China, see “Enforceability of Civil Liabilities.” However, the deposit agreement gives you the right to submit claims against us to binding arbitration, and arbitration awards may be enforceable against us and our assets in China even when court judgments are not.

You may not receive cash dividends if the depositary decides it is impractical to make them available to you.

The depositary will pay cash dividends on the ADSs only to the extent that we decide to distribute dividends on our ordinary shares or other deposited securities, and we do not have any present plan to pay any cash dividends on our ordinary shares in the foreseeable future. To the extent that there is a distribution, the depositary of the ADSs has agreed to pay to you the cash dividends or other distributions it or the custodian receives on our ordinary shares or other deposited securities after deducting its fees and expenses. You will receive these distributions in proportion to the number of ordinary shares your ADSs represent. However, the depositary may, at its discretion, decide that it is inequitable or impractical to make a distribution available to any holders of ADSs. For example, the depositary may determine that it is not practicable to distribute certain property through the mail, or that the value of certain distributions may be less than the cost of mailing them. In these cases, the depositary may decide not to distribute such property to you.

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ADSs holders may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to claims arising under the deposit agreement, which could result in less favorable outcomes to the plaintiff(s) in any such action.

The deposit agreement governing the ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares provides that, to the fullest extent permitted by law, ADS holders waive the right to a jury trial for any claim they may have against us or the depositary arising out of or relating to our shares, the ADSs or the deposit agreement, including any claim under the U.S. federal securities laws.

If we or the depositary were to oppose a jury trial based on this waiver, the court would have to determine whether the waiver was enforceable based on the facts and circumstances of the case in accordance with applicable state and federal law. To our knowledge, the enforceability of a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver in connection with claims arising under the federal securities laws has not been finally adjudicated by the United States Supreme Court. However, we believe that a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver provision is generally enforceable, including under the laws of the State of New York, which govern the deposit agreement, or by a federal or state court in the City of New York, which has non-exclusive jurisdiction over matters arising under the deposit agreement. In determining whether to enforce a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver, courts will generally consider whether a party knowingly, intelligently and voluntarily waived the right to a jury trial. We believe that this would be the case with respect to the deposit agreement and the ADSs. It is advisable that you consult legal counsel regarding the jury waiver provision before investing in the ADSs.

If you or any other owners or holders of ADSs bring a claim against us or the depositary in connection with matters arising under the deposit agreement or the ADSs, including claims under federal securities laws, you or such other owners or holders may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to such claims, which may have the effect of limiting and discouraging lawsuits against us or the depositary. If a lawsuit is brought against us or the depositary under the deposit agreement, it may be heard only by a judge or justice of the applicable trial court, which would be conducted according to different civil procedures and may result in different outcomes than a trial by jury would have, including outcomes that could be less favorable to the plaintiff(s) in any such action.

Nevertheless, if this jury trial waiver is not permitted by applicable law, an action could proceed under the terms of the deposit agreement with a jury trial. No condition, stipulation or provision of the deposit agreement or the ADSs serves as a waiver by any owners or holders of ADSs or by us or the depositary of compliance with any substantive provision of the U.S. federal securities laws and the rules and regulations promulgated thereunder.

Our proposed dual-class share structure with different voting rights, as well as the concentration of our share ownership among executive officers, directors and principal shareholders, may limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any change of control transactions that holders of our Class A ordinary shares and the ADSs may view as beneficial.

We have adopted a dual-class share structure such that our ordinary shares will consist of Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares, which is conditional upon, and will become effective immediately prior to the completion of this offering. In respect of matters requiring the votes of shareholders, each Class A ordinary share is entitled to one vote and each Class B ordinary share is entitled to 15 votes. Each Class B ordinary share is convertible into one Class A ordinary share at any time by the holder thereof. Class A ordinary shares are not convertible into Class B ordinary shares under any circumstances. We will sell Class A ordinary shares represented by the ADSs in this offering. For more information, see “Description of Share Capital.”

Mr. Xueji (Jerry) Wang, our Chief Executive Officer and director, and Mr. Liaohan (Leo) Chen, our director, will collectively beneficially own all of our issued and outstanding Class B ordinary shares immediately prior to the completion of this offering. These Class B ordinary shares will constitute approximately 25.4% of our total issued and outstanding share capital and 83.7% of the aggregate voting power of our total issued and outstanding share capital immediately following the completion of this offering, assuming the underwriters do not exercise their option to purchase additional ADSs.

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As a result of this dual-class share structure and the concentration of control, upon completion of this offering, Mr. Xueji (Jerry) Wang and Mr. Liaohan (Leo) Chen as a group will have significant influence over our business, including decisions regarding mergers, consolidations, liquidations and the sale of all or substantially all of our assets, election of directors and other significant corporate actions. In addition, our executive officers, directors, and principal shareholders and their affiliated entities together beneficially own approximately 63.8% of our outstanding ordinary shares on an as-converted basis immediately after the completion of this offering, assuming the underwriters do not exercise their option to purchase additional ADSs. These shareholders may take actions that are not in the best interest of us or our other shareholders. This concentration of control may discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company, which could have the effect of depriving our other shareholders of the opportunity to receive a premium for their shares as part of a sale of our company and may reduce the price of the ADSs. It will also limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any potential merger, takeover or other change of control transactions that holders of Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may view as beneficial.

You may experience dilution of your holdings due to the inability to participate in rights offerings.

We may, from time to time, distribute rights to our shareholders, including rights to acquire securities. However, we cannot make such rights available to you in the United States unless we register both the rights and the securities to which the rights relate under the Securities Act or an exemption from the registration requirements is available. Under the deposit agreement, the depositary will not distribute rights to holders of ADSs unless the distribution and sale of rights and the securities to which these rights relate are either exempt from registration under the Securities Act with respect to all holders of ADSs, or are registered under the provisions of the Securities Act. The depositary may, but is not required to, attempt to sell these undistributed rights to third parties, and may allow the rights to lapse. We may be unable to establish an exemption from registration under the Securities Act, and we are under no obligation to file a registration statement with respect to these rights or underlying securities or to endeavor to have a registration statement declared effective. Accordingly, holders of the ADSs may be unable to participate in our rights offerings and may experience dilution of their holdings as a result.

You may be subject to limitations on the transfer of your ADSs.

Your ADSs are transferable on the books of the depositary. However, the depositary may close its books at any time or from time to time when it deems it expedient in connection with the performance of its duties. The depositary may also close its books in emergencies, and on weekends and public holidays. The depositary may refuse to deliver, transfer or register transfers of the ADSs generally when our share register or the books of the depositary are closed, or at any time if we or the depositary thinks it is advisable to do so because of any requirement of law or of any government or governmental body, or under any provision of the deposit agreement, or for any other reason.

We are an emerging growth company within the meaning of the Securities Act and may take advantage of certain reduced reporting requirements.

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the JOBS Act, and we may take advantage of certain exemptions from requirements applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies, including, most significantly, not being required to comply with the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 for so long as we remain an emerging growth company. As a result, if we elect not to comply with such auditor attestation requirements, our investors may not have access to certain information they may deem important.

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The post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association that we will adopt and will become effective immediately prior to the completion of this offering contain anti-takeover provisions that could discourage a third party from acquiring us and adversely affect the rights of holders of our ordinary shares and ADSs.

Our post-offering amended and restated memorandum and articles of association that we will adopt and will become effective immediately prior to the completion of this offering contain certain provisions to limit the ability of others to acquire control of our company or cause us to engage in change-of-control transactions, including provisions that authorize our board of directors to issue preferred shares in one or more series and to designate the price, rights, preferences, privileges and restrictions of such preferred shares without any further vote or action by our shareholders. These provisions could have the effect of depriving our shareholders and ADS holders of the opportunity to sell their shares or ADSs at a premium over the prevailing market price by discouraging third parties from seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or similar transactions.

We are a foreign private issuer within the meaning of the rules under the Exchange Act, and as such we are exempt from certain provisions applicable to U.S. domestic public companies.

Because we qualify as a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the securities rules and regulations in the United States that are applicable to U.S. domestic issuers, including:

We are required to file an annual report on Form 20-F within four months of the end of each fiscal year. In addition, we intend to publish our results on a quarterly basis as press releases, distributed pursuant to the rules and regulations of the NYSE. Press releases relating to financial results and material events will also be furnished to the SEC on Form 6-K. However, the information we are required to file with or furnish to the SEC will be less extensive and less timely compared to that required to be filed with the SEC by U.S. domestic issuers. As a result, you may not be afforded the same protections or information that would be made available to you were you investing in a U.S. domestic issuer, which may be difficult for overseas regulators to conduct investigation or collect evidence within China.

We will incur increased costs as a result of being a public company, particularly after we cease to qualify as an emerging growth company.

Upon completion of this offering, we will become a public company and expect to incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as well as rules subsequently implemented by the SEC and NYSE, impose various requirements on the corporate governance practices of public companies. As a company with less than US$1.07 billion in revenues for our last fiscal year, we qualify as an “emerging growth company” pursuant to the JOBS Act. An emerging growth company may take advantage of specified reduced reporting and other requirements that are otherwise applicable generally to public companies. These provisions include exemption from the auditor attestation requirement under Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 in the assessment of the emerging growth company’s internal control over financial reporting and permission to delay adopting new or revised accounting standards until such time as those standards apply to private companies.

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We expect these rules and regulations to increase our legal and financial compliance costs and to make some corporate activities more time-consuming and costly. After we are no longer an “emerging growth company”, we expect to incur significant expenses and devote substantial management effort toward ensuring compliance with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 and the other rules and regulations of the SEC. For example, as a result of becoming a public company, we will need to increase the number of independent directors and adopt policies regarding internal controls and disclosure controls and procedures. We also expect that operating as a public company will make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. In addition, we will incur additional costs associated with our public company reporting requirements. It may also be more difficult for us to find qualified persons to serve on our board of directors or as executive officers. We are currently evaluating and monitoring developments with respect to these rules and regulations, and we cannot predict or estimate with any degree of certainty the amount of additional costs we may incur or the timing of such costs.

In the past, shareholders of a public company often brought securities class action suits against the company following periods of instability in the market price of that company’s securities. If we were involved in a class action suit, it could divert a significant amount of our management’s attention and other resources from our business and operations, which could harm our results of operations and require us to incur significant expenses to defend the suit. Any such class action suit, whether or not successful, could harm our reputation and restrict our ability to raise capital in the future. In addition, if a claim is successfully made against us, we may be required to pay significant damages, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

As an exempted company incorporated in the Cayman Islands, we are permitted to adopt certain home country practices in relation to corporate governance matters that differ significantly from the NYSE corporate governance listing standards. These practices may afford less protection to shareholders than they would enjoy if we complied fully with the NYSE corporate governance listing standards.

As a Cayman Islands exempted company listed on the NYSE, we are subject to corporate governance listing standards of NYSE. However, NYSE rules permit a foreign private issuer like us to follow the corporate governance practices of its home country. Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, may differ significantly from the NYSE corporate governance listing standards. We currently intend to follow Cayman Islands corporate governance practices in lieu of the corporate governance requirements of the NYSE that listed companies must have a majority of independent directors and that the audit committee consists of at least three members. To the extent that we choose to follow home country practice, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would enjoy under NYSE corporate governance listing standards applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.

We may be a passive foreign investment company, which could result in adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences to U.S. investors owning the ADSs or ordinary shares.

In general, a non-U.S. corporation is a PFIC for any taxable year in which (i) 75% or more of its gross income consists of passive income or (ii) 50% or more of the average value of its assets (generally determined on a quarterly basis) consists of assets that produce, or are held for the production of, passive income. For purposes of the above calculations, a non-U.S. corporation that owns, directly or indirectly, at least 25% by value of the shares of another corporation is treated as if it held its proportionate share of the assets of the other corporation and received directly its proportionate share of the income of the other corporation. Passive income generally includes dividends, interest, rents, royalties and certain gains. Cash is generally a passive asset for these purposes. The value of a company’s goodwill is an active asset under the PFIC rules to the extent attributable to activities that produce active income.

Based on the expected composition of our income and assets and the estimated value of our assets, including goodwill, which is based on the expected price of the ADSs in this offering, we do not expect to be a PFIC for

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our current taxable year or in the foreseeable future. However, our PFIC status for any taxable year is an annual determination that can be made only after the end of that year and will depend on the composition of our income and assets and the value of our assets (including goodwill) from time to time. The value of our goodwill may be determined, in large part, by reference to the market price of the ADSs, which could be volatile. Furthermore, we will hold a substantial amount of cash following this offering and therefore our risk of being a PFIC for any taxable year will increase if our market capitalization declines. Moreover, it is not entirely clear how the contractual arrangements between us and our VIE will be treated for purposes of the PFIC rules, and we may be or become a PFIC if our VIE is not treated as owned by us for these purposes. Accordingly, there can be no assurance that we will not be a PFIC for our current or any future taxable year.

If we were a PFIC for any taxable year during which a U.S. investor held an ADS or an ordinary share, certain adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences could apply to the U.S. Holder. See “Taxation—Material U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations—Passive Foreign Investment Company Rules.”

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CAUTIONARY STATEMENT REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This prospectus contains statements that constitute forward-looking statements. Many of the forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus can be identified by the use of forward-looking words such as “anticipate,” “believe,” “could,” “expect,” “should,” “plan,” “intend,” “estimate” and “potential,” among others.

Forward-looking statements appear in a number of places in this prospectus and include, but are not limited to, statements regarding our intent, belief or current expectations. Forward-looking statements are based on our management’s beliefs and assumptions and on information currently available to our management. Such statements are subject to risks and uncertainties, and actual results may differ materially from those expressed or implied in the forward-looking statements due to of various factors, including, but not limited to, those identified under the section entitled “Risk Factors” in this prospectus. These risks and uncertainties include factors relating to:

Forward-looking statements speak only as of the date they are made, and we do not undertake any obligation to update them in light of new information or future developments or to release publicly any revisions to these statements in order to reflect later events or circumstances or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events.

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USE OF PROCEEDS

We expect to receive total estimated net proceeds from this offering of approximately US$770.72 million, or approximately US$886.85 million if the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional ADSs in full, based on the midpoint of the estimated initial public offering price range set forth on the front cover of this prospectus, after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and the estimated offering expenses payable by us.

We intend to use the net proceeds from this offering for the following purposes:

If an unforeseen event occurs or business conditions change, we may use the proceeds of this offering differently than as described in this prospectus. In utilizing the proceeds from this offering, we are permitted under PRC laws and regulations to provide funding to our PRC subsidiaries only through loans or capital contributions, and to our consolidated VIE only through loans, and only if we satisfy the applicable government registration and approval requirements. We cannot assure you that we will be able to meet these requirements on a timely basis, if at all. See “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—PRC regulation of loans to and direct investment in PRC entities by offshore holding companies and governmental control of currency conversion may delay us from using the proceeds of this offering to make loans or additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiary, which could materially and adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business.”

Pending use of the net proceeds, we intend to hold our net proceeds in short-term, interest-bearing, financial instruments or demand deposits.

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DIVIDEND POLICY

We have not previously declared or paid any cash dividend or dividend in kind and we have no plan to declare or pay any dividends in the near future on our shares or the ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares. We currently intend to retain most, if not all, of our available funds and any future earnings to operate and expand our business.

We are a holding company incorporated in the Cayman Islands. We may rely on dividends from our PRC subsidiaries for our cash requirements, including any payment of dividends to our shareholders. PRC regulations may restrict the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to pay dividends to us. See “Regulation—Regulations on Foreign Exchange—Dividend Distribution.”

Our board of directors has discretion as to whether to distribute dividends, subject to certain requirements of Cayman Islands law. In addition, our shareholders may by ordinary resolution declare a dividend, but no dividend may exceed the amount recommended by our board of directors. Under Cayman Islands law, a Cayman Islands company may pay a dividend out of either profit or share premium account, provided that in no circumstances may a dividend be paid if this would result in the company being unable to pay its debts as they fall due in the ordinary course of business. Even if our board of directors decides to pay dividends, the form, frequency and amount will depend upon our future operations and earnings, capital requirements and surplus, general financial condition, contractual restrictions and other factors that the board of directors may deem relevant. If we pay any dividends on our ordinary shares, we will pay those dividends which are payable in respect of the Class A ordinary shares underlying the ADSs to the depositary, as the registered holder of such Class A ordinary shares, and the depositary then will pay such amounts to the ADS holders in proportion to the Class A ordinary shares underlying the ADSs held by such ADS holders, subject to the terms of the deposit agreement, including the fees and expenses payable thereunder. See “Description of American Depositary Shares.”

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CAPITALIZATION

The table below sets forth our capitalization as of December 31, 2020:

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You should read this table together with our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus and the information under “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

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DILUTION

If you invest in the ADSs, your interest will be diluted to the extent of the difference between the initial public offering price per ADS and our net tangible book value per ADS after this offering. Dilution results from the fact that the initial public offering price per Class A ordinary share is substantially in excess of the book value per ordinary share attributable to the existing shareholders for our presently outstanding ordinary shares.

Our net tangible book value as of December 31, 2020 was approximately US$168.46 million, or US$0.76 per Class A ordinary share and US$0.76 per ADS. Our net tangible book value as of December 31, 2020 as adjusted to reflect the issuance and sale of an aggregate of 16,026,282 ordinary shares to NVMB XIV Holdings Limited and Tencent Mobility Limited on February 1, 2021 and February 2, 2021, respectively was approximately US$368.46 million, or US$1.55 per Class A ordinary share and US$1.55 per ADS. Net tangible book value represents the amount of our total consolidated tangible assets, less the amount of our total consolidated liabilities. Dilution is determined by subtracting net tangible book value per ordinary share, after giving effect to the additional proceeds we will receive from this offering, from the assumed initial public offering price of US$18.50 per Class A ordinary share, which is the midpoint of the estimated initial public offering price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus adjusted to reflect the ADS-to-ordinary share ratio, and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

Without taking into account any other changes in such net tangible book value after December 31, 2020, other than to give effect to (i) the conversion of all of our ordinary shares and preferred shares into Class A ordinary shares or Class B ordinary shares, as the case may be, on a one-to-one basis which will occur automatically immediately prior to the completion of this offering; (ii) our issuance and sale of Class A ordinary shares represented by the 43,590,000 ADSs offered in this offering at an assumed initial public offering price of US$18.50 per ADS, the midpoint of the estimated initial public offering price range set forth on the front cover of this prospectus, after deduction of the underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us, and (iii) the issuance and sale of an aggregate of 16,026,282 ordinary shares to NVMB XIV Holdings Limited and Tencent Mobility Limited on February 1, 2021 and February 2, 2021, respectively, and the automatic conversion or re-designation of these ordinary shares into Class A ordinary shares, on a one-for-one basis, immediately prior to the completion of this offering, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value as of December 31, 2020 would have been approximately US$1,139.18 million, or US$2.04 per ordinary share and US$2.04 per ADS, to existing shareholders and an immediate dilution in net tangible book value of US$16.46 per ordinary share, or US$16.46 per ADS, to purchasers of ADSs in this offering. The following table illustrates such dilution:

The pro forma information discussed above is illustrative only.

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The following table summarizes, on a pro forma basis as of December 31, 2020 as adjusted to reflect the issuance and sale of an aggregate of 16,026,282 ordinary shares to NVMB XIV Holdings Limited and Tencent Mobility Limited on February 1, 2021 and February 2, 2021, respectively the differences between the existing shareholders and the new investors with respect to the number of Class A ordinary shares purchased from us in this offering, the total consideration paid and the average price per Class A ordinary share paid at the initial public offering price of US$18.50 per ADS, the midpoint of the estimated initial public offering price range set forth on the front cover of this prospectus, before deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses. The total number of ordinary shares does not include the Class A ordinary shares underlying the ADSs issuable upon the exercise of the over-allotment option granted to the underwriters.

The discussion and tables above also assume no exercise of any stock options outstanding as of the date of this prospectus. As of the date of this prospectus, there are 62,965,000 ordinary shares issuable upon exercise of outstanding stock options, and there are a total of 13,813,005 ordinary shares available for future issuance upon the exercise of grants under our 2015 Equity Incentive Plan. Our 2015 Equity Incentive Plan provides for annual automatic increases in the number of ordinary shares reserved thereunder. See the section of this prospectus captioned “Management—Equity Incentive Plan—2015 Equity Incentive Plan.” To the extent that any of these options are exercised, there will be further dilution to new investors.

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ENFORCEABILITY OF CIVIL LIABILITIES

Cayman Islands

We are incorporated in the Cayman Islands as an exempted company with limited liability in order to enjoy the following benefits:

However, certain disadvantages accompany incorporation in the Cayman Islands. These disadvantages include, but are not limited to, the following:

Our constitutional documents do not contain provisions requiring that disputes, including those arising under the securities laws of the United States, between us, our officers, directors and shareholders, be arbitrated.

Substantially all of our operations are conducted in China, and substantially all of our assets are located in China. A majority of our directors and executive officers are nationals or residents of jurisdictions other than the United States and a substantial portion of their assets are located outside the United States. As a result, it may be difficult for a shareholder to effect service of process within the United States upon these persons, or to enforce against us or them judgments obtained in United States courts, including judgments predicated upon the civil liability provisions of the securities laws of the United States or any state in the United States.

We have appointed Cogency Global Inc. as our agent upon whom process may be served in any action brought against us under the securities laws of the United States.

Maples and Calder (Hong Kong) LLP, our counsel as to Cayman Islands law, and Jia Yuan Law Offices, our counsel as to PRC law, have advised us, respectively, that there is uncertainty as to whether the courts of the Cayman Islands and China, respectively, would:

Maples and Calder (Hong Kong) LLP has informed us that it is uncertain whether the courts of the Cayman Islands would (i) recognize or enforce judgments of U.S. courts obtained against us or our directors or officers that are predicated upon the civil liability provisions of the federal securities laws of the United States or the securities laws of any state in the United States, or (ii) entertain original actions brought in the Cayman Islands against us or our directors or officers that are predicated upon the federal securities laws of the United States or the securities laws of any state in the United States. Maples and Calder (Hong Kong) LLP has informed us that although there is no statutory enforcement in the Cayman Islands of judgments obtained in the federal or state courts of the United States (and the Cayman Islands are not a party to any treaties for the reciprocal enforcement

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or recognition of such judgments), a judgment obtained in such jurisdiction will be recognized and enforced in the courts of the Cayman Islands at common law, without any reexamination of the merits of the underlying dispute, by an action commenced on the foreign judgment debt in the Grand Court of the Cayman Islands, provided such judgment (a) is given by a foreign court of competent jurisdiction, (b) imposes on the judgment debtor a liability to pay a liquidated sum for which the judgment has been given, (c) is final, (d) is not in respect of taxes, a fine or a penalty, and (e) was not obtained in a manner and is not of a kind the enforcement of which is contrary to natural justice or the public policy of the Cayman Islands. However, the Cayman Islands courts are unlikely to enforce a judgment obtained from the U.S. courts under civil liability provisions of the U.S. federal securities law if such judgment is determined by the courts of the Cayman Islands to give rise to obligations to make payments that are penal or punitive in nature. A Cayman Islands court may stay enforcement proceedings if concurrent proceedings are being brought elsewhere.

PRC

We have been advised by Jia Yuan Law Offices, our PRC legal counsel, that there is uncertainty as to whether the courts of the PRC would enforce judgments of United States courts or Cayman courts obtained against us or these persons predicated upon the civil liability provisions of the United States federal and state securities laws. Jia Yuan Law Offices has further advised us that the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments are provided for under PRC Civil Procedures Law. PRC courts may recognize and enforce foreign judgments in accordance with the requirements of PRC Civil Procedures Law based either on treaties between China and the country where the judgment is made or on reciprocity between jurisdictions. China does not have any treaties or other form of reciprocity with the United States or the Cayman Islands that provide for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. In addition, according to the PRC Civil Procedures Law, courts in the PRC will not enforce a foreign judgment against us or our directors and officers if they decide that the judgment violates the basic principles of PRC law or national sovereignty, security or public interest. As a result, it is uncertain whether and on what basis a PRC court would enforce a judgment rendered by a court in the United States or in the Cayman Islands. Under the PRC Civil Procedures Law and the PRC Law on Choice of Law for Foreign-related Civil Relationships, foreign shareholders may originate actions based on PRC law against us in the PRC, if they can establish sufficient nexus to the PRC for a PRC court to have jurisdiction, and meet other procedural requirements, including, among others, the plaintiff must have a direct interest in the case, and there must be a concrete claim, a factual basis and a cause for the suit. However, it would be difficult for foreign shareholders to establish sufficient nexus to the PRC by virtue only of holding the ADSs or ordinary shares.

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OUR HISTORY AND CORPORATE STRUCTURE

Our Corporate History

We commenced our operations in June 2014 through Hangzhou Tuya Technology Co., Ltd., or Hangzhou Tuya Technology.

In August 2014, Tuya, Inc., our current ultimate holding company, was incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands.

In September 2014, Tuya (HK) Limited, currently a wholly-owned subsidiary of Tuya Inc., was incorporated under the laws of Hong Kong.

In December 2014, Hangzhou Tuya Information Technology Co., Ltd. (formerly known as Hangzhou Aixiangji Technology Co., Ltd.), or Tuya Information, was incorporated in the PRC. Tuya Information is currently a wholly-owned subsidiary of Tuya (HK) Limited.

In June 2018, we effected a 10-for-1 share subdivision, following which each of our issued and unissued ordinary shares and preferred shares was subdivided into ten ordinary shares and preferred shares, respectively.

Tuya Information has entered into a series of contractual arrangements, as amended and restated, with Hangzhou Tuya Technology and its shareholders, through which we obtained control over Hangzhou Tuya Technology and its subsidiaries. As a result, we are regarded as the primary beneficiary of Hangzhou Tuya Technology and its subsidiaries. We treat them as our consolidated affiliated entities under U.S. GAAP, and have consolidated the financial results of these entities in our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP. We refer to Tuya Information as our wholly foreign owned entity, or WFOE, and to Hangzhou Tuya Technology as our variable interest entity, or VIE, in this prospectus. For more details and risks related to our VIE structure, please see “—Contractual Arrangements with our VIE and Its Shareholders” and “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure.”

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Our Corporate Structure

The following chart illustrates our corporate structure, including our significant subsidiaries as that term is defined under Section 1-02 of Regulation S-X under the Securities Act, our VIE and certain other subsidiaries, as of the date of this prospectus:

Contractual Arrangements with Our VIE and its Shareholders

We are a company organized under the law of the Cayman Islands and currently conducts substantially all of our business operations in the PRC through Tuya Information, our wholly-owned subsidiary incorporated in the PRC.

Current PRC laws and regulations impose certain restrictions or prohibitions on foreign ownership of companies that engage in value-added telecommunication services and certain other businesses. As we may in the future engage in such services and businesses, we have, through Tuya Information, entered into a series of contractual arrangements, as amended and restated, with Hangzhou Tuya Technology, our VIE, as well as its shareholders. As a result of these contractual arrangements, we exert effective control over, and are considered the primary beneficiary of, our VIE and consolidate its operating results in our financial statements under the U.S. GAAP.

The following is a summary of the contractual arrangements by and among Tuya Information, Hangzhou Tuya Technology and the shareholders of Hangzhou Tuya Technology. For the complete text of these contractual arrangements, please see the copies filed as exhibits to the registration statement filed with the SEC of which this prospectus forms a part.

In the opinion of Jia Yuan Law Offices, our PRC legal counsel, the contractual arrangements described below are valid, binding and enforceable under current PRC law. However, these contractual arrangements may

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not be as effective in providing control as direct ownership. There are substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current or future PRC laws and regulations. We have been further advised by our PRC legal counsel that if the PRC government finds that the agreements that establish the VIE structure do not comply with applicable PRC laws and regulations, we could be subject to penalties including being required to cease the operations carried out through the VIE. For a detailed discussion of the risks and uncertainties related to these contractual arrangements and our corporate structure, please see “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure.”

Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreement

Under this exclusive business cooperation agreement, Tuya Information has agreed to provide the following services to Hangzhou Tuya Technology:

Hangzhou Tuya Technology has agreed to pay monthly services fees to Tuya Information in discretion of Hangzhou Tuya Technology after considering certain factors as specified in the exclusive business cooperation agreement. This agreement was effective from December 23, 2014 and will continue to be effective unless it is terminated by written notice of Tuya Information or according to the provisions in the agreement. Unless otherwise required by applicable laws, Hangzhou Tuya Technology shall not have any right to terminate this exclusive business cooperation agreement in any event.

Equity Interest Pledge Agreement

Xueji (Jerry) Wang, one of the shareholders of Hangzhou Tuya Technology, entered into an equity pledge agreement with Tuya Information and Hangzhou Tuya Technology, originally dated December 23, 2014 and amended and restated on August 23, 2019. Each of Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen, the shareholders of Hangzhou Tuya Technology, entered into an equity pledge agreement with Tuya Information and Hangzhou Tuya Technology, each originally dated December 23, 2014 and amended on August 23, 2019. Under such equity interest pledge agreements, each of Xueji (Jerry) Wang, Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen pledged his or her respective equity interest in Hangzhou Tuya Technology to Tuya Information to secure his or her obligations under the applicable exclusive business cooperation agreement, exclusive option agreement, and powers of attorney. Each of Xueji (Jerry) Wang, Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen further agreed to not transfer or pledge his or her respective equity interest in Hangzhou Tuya Technology without the prior written consent of Tuya

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Information. Each of the equity pledge agreement will remain binding until the respective pledger, Xueji (Jerry) Wang, Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen, as the case may be, discharges all his or her obligations and pays all his or her indebtedness under the above-mentioned agreements. As the date of this prospectus, the equity pledges under the equity interest pledge agreement have been registered with competent PRC regulatory authority.

Exclusive Option Agreement

Under the exclusive option agreement entered into by Tuya Information, Hangzhou Tuya Technology and Xueji (Jerry) Wang, originally dated December 23, 2014 and amended and restated on August 23, 2019, and the exclusive option agreements entered into by Tuya Information, Hangzhou Tuya Technology and each of Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen, each dated December 23, 2014, each of Xueji (Jerry) Wang, Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen granted Tuya Information an option to purchase all or a portion of his or her respective equity interest in Hangzhou Tuya Technology at a price equal to the higher of RMB1.0 and the minimum amount of consideration permitted by PRC law. In addition, under each exclusive purchase option agreement, Hangzhou Tuya Technology has granted Tuya Information an option to purchase all or a portion of the assets held by Hangzhou Tuya Technology or its subsidiaries for the minimum amount of consideration permitted by PRC law. Each of Hangzhou Tuya Technology, Xueji (Jerry) Wang, Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen agreed not to transfer, mortgage or permit any security interest to be created on any equity interest in or material assets of Hangzhou Tuya Technology without the prior written consent of Tuya Information. Each exclusive purchase option agreement shall remain in effect until all of the equity interests in Hangzhou Tuya Technology have been acquired by Tuya Information.

Powers of Attorney

Pursuant to a power of attorney issued by Xueji (Jerry) Wang and accepted by Tuya Information on August 23, 2019 and a series of powers of attorney issued by each of Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen and accepted by Tuya Information on December 23, 2014, each of Xueji (Jerry) Wang, Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen irrevocably appointed Tuya Information as their exclusive agent and attorney to act on their behalf on all shareholder matters of Hangzhou Tuya Technology and exercise all rights as shareholders of Hangzhou Tuya Technology. These powers of attorney shall remain valid during the period that each of them is a shareholder of Hangzhou Tuya Technology.

Spousal Consents

Each of the spouse of Xueji (Jerry) Wang, Liaohan (Leo) Chen, Yaona Lin, Ruixin Zhou and Peihong Chen has signed a spousal consent. Under each of the spousal consent, the signing spouse undertook not to make any assertions in connection with the equity interests in Hangzhou Tuya Technology held by her spouse. Moreover, each spouse agreed that the disposition of the equity interest in Hangzhou Tuya Technology which is held by and registered under the name of her spouse shall be made pursuant to the above-mentioned exclusive business cooperation agreement, exclusive option agreement and powers of attorney, as amended from time to time. In addition, in the event that any of them obtains any equity interest in Hangzhou Tuya Technology held by their respective spouses for any reason, such spouse agreed to be bound by similar obligations and agreed to enter into similar contractual arrangements.

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SELECTED CONSOLIDATED OPERATING AND FINANCIAL DATA

The following selected consolidated statements of comprehensive loss data for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020, summary consolidated balance sheets data as of December 31, 2019 and 2020 and selected consolidated cash flows data for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020 have been derived from audited consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus. Our consolidated financial statements are prepared and presented in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America, or U.S. GAAP. Our historical results are not necessarily indicative of results expected for future periods. You should read this Selected Consolidated Operating and Financial Data section together with our consolidated financial statements and the related notes and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” included elsewhere in this prospectus.

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The following table presents our selected consolidated balance sheet data as of December 31, 2019 and 2020.